Inadequate seed production has historically been a factor limiting the commercial culture of Clarias gariepinus. The need to determine the environmental requirements of larvae was identified, in order to facilitate their successful mass rearing in hatcheries. The effects of key environmental factors on the growth, survival and aspects of the behaviour of C. gariepinus larvae and juveniles were investigated under controlled conditions. A strong emphasis was placed on the interpretation of the observed responses in terms of the natural history of the animal. Larvae were obtained by artificially inducing and spawning feral adult broodfish. Larval growth rates were highest in the temperature range 26-33ºC, with a peak at 30ºC. Survival of larvae was high between 22 and 33ºC. The final temperature preferendum of juveniles, determined in a thermal gradient was 30ºC, and it was concluded that this temperature is probably optimal for most of the physiological processes of the animal. Larvae and juveniles displayed strong negative phototaxis. When reared under different photoperiod regimes, larval growth increased with longer dark periods, however a similar rate of mortality was recorded in all photoperiod treatments. The provision of cover was found to enhance larval growth under conditions of continual light (24L/OD), however under conditions of continual darkness (OL/24D) similar growth rates were recorded regardless of the presence or absence of cover. All growth rates in continual darkness (OL/24D) were higher than those in continual light (24L/OD), regardless of whether cover was provided or not. It was concluded that a OL/24D photoperiod is optimal for larval rearing. At salinities between 0 and 5% similar growth and mortality rates of larvae were recorded. At 7.5 % larval growth and survival rates were lower, and at 10 % all larvae died within 48 hours. The 96h-LCSO for unionised ammonia was found to be 2.3 mg/l. The cytological effects of unionised ammonia were evident as degenerative changes in the gill and liver tissues. In an investigation of tank hygiene, it was found that larval growth and survival rates were highest in tanks not cleaned at all. As the frequency of tank cleaning increased, the growth and survival rates of larvae decreased. When reared at densities ranging from 45-450/1, larval growth was found to be density dependent. A model of hatchery productivity (number larvae of standard size produced/time/vol.) was developed based on the density dependent nature of larval growth. The model predicts that maximum productivity, will be achieved at a rearing density of 1400/1. The high growth and survival rates obtained over a broad range of each environmental parameter investigated serve to explain how larvae survive and grow in their unstable floodplain habitat in nature. The broad environmental tolerances of C. gariepinus are of benefit with respect to the culture of larvae, as successful larval rearing is possible over a fairly wide range of environmental conditions.

A histological assessment allows aquatic scientists to assess fish health in polluted aquatic ecosystems at tissue and cellular level. However, a firm knowledge and understanding of normal histological structure is essential to ensure accurate and objective results. Hence, the histologist must be able to distinguish between toxicant induced lesions and the range of histological characteristics considered to be normal for that specific species. However, limited histological reference material and data describing normal conditions are available for southern African fish species. The aim of this baseline study was to establish reference material, both qualitative and quantitative, for two southern African freshwater fish species used as indicator species in toxicity studies at the University of Johannesburg, Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis mossambicus. The reference material includes descriptive histology of selected target organs, and the associated values and intervals for related quantitative health aspects including somatic indices, condition factor, blood parameters (haematocrit and plasma proteins) and quantitative histological results. Essentially, this project originated from a need to better understand the normal histology of C. gariepinus and O. mossambicus, as a range of histological characteristics were identified in control groups in previous toxicity studies which could not be confirmed to be associated with normal conditions. To be able to conduct a baseline study, with the purpose of establishing reference material, it was essential that the history of the specimens be known and documented including age, sexual maturity, nutritional status and physical and chemical water quality data. The project therefore involved the breeding of fish specimens under controlled conditions. A subsequent necropsy and qualitative and quantitative histological assessments were executed on five target organs (usually included in toxicity studies within the department): liver, gills, gonads, heart and kidney. Fish of both species were bred in an environmental room in reconstituted, reverse osmosis water and reared until sexually mature. Twenty specimens with an approximately 50:50% sex ratio were collected for both species. A necropsy was performed on each specimen and tissue samples of the selected target organs were processed using standard techniques, and prepared for the qualitative and quantitative histological assessments using light microscopy. The results The results showed that no macroscopic abnormalities were identified during the necropsy regarding external features or internal organs of the specimens within the sample groups, and all fish appeared to be in good health. The target organs were then examined microscopically, followed by a description of the normal histological structure (qualitative assessment). In addition, the target organs were assessed by means of a specific quantitative histological assessment protocol, which provides a standardised methodology of criteria to objectively assess fish health (quantitative assessment). Histological alterations identified during this assessment were quantified and subsequent reference index values could be calculated for each organ. / Dr. G.M. Pieterse

Past and current research on the biology and culture of the sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus) has stimulated the development of its commercial production. At the inception of this project in 1985, it was decided that the development of an optimal dry feed was the most important step in developing a more complete culture technology for the species. The objectives of the project were, therefore, to investigate aspects of the nutritional physiology and dietary requirements of the species to provide the necessary information for the formulation of optimum economical feeds. A review of the natural feeding biology of the species provided valuable information with regard to its food preferences. From this information, and by estimating the nutritional composition of its preferred natural diet, it could be concluded that the animal requires a relatively high dietary protein content. This conclusion was substantiated by studies of the functional morphology of the digestive system (gross and fine structure). The characteristics of the digestive system and external anatomy were found to be typical of an opportunistic, omnivorous predator. The ontogenetic development of the digestive system is relatively fast, and enables the utilization of a variety of diets efficiently from an early stage. Since the ability of an animal to digest a given substance is predominantly dependent on the presence of appropriate enzymes the quantification and characterization of C. gariepinus digestive enzyme activities were investigated on an experimental basis. This work revealed that the animal has relatively high levels of digestive enzyme activities, and that its proteolytic enzyme activities correspond with those of other carnivorous fishes, while its starch digesting abilities correspond with those of specialized herbivores. Also, the high levels of lysozyme and alkaline phosphatase indicate an adaptation to detritivory, making this fish a truly opportunistic omnivore. Evidence was found to suggest that sharptooth catfish are able to re-absorb secreted digestive enzymes in the posterior section of its intestinal tract. It was shown that digestive enzyme activities were induced by food intake, and that no inherent rhythmicity in digestive activities seemed to occur. The development of digestive enzyme systems in the early life history of this animal was found to be also extremely rapid (complete within 10-16 days after hatching). It was also shown that artificial dry feed stimulates higher levels of digestive enzyme activities in larvae and juveniles than natural food. Although increased cellulase activity was found in larvae and juveniles that were fed on live zooplankton, the relative contribution of exogenous prey enzymes to protein digestion could not be ascertained. Specific nutritional requirements were investigated by means of feeding trials. The results of these trials confirmed the above indications regarding the dietary requirements of sharptooth catfish. It was concluded that for optimal growth and production performance, this animal requires a dietary protein content of 40-42%, a dietary lipid content of 10-12% and that diets should contain 14-16 kJ/g digestible energy. The optimum protein-to-energy ratio was found to be 26-29mg protein per kJ of digestible energy. Dietary requirements are evidently the same for juveniles and adults, except that younger fish require higher relative feeding levels. Finally, practical feed formulations were evaluated in terms of their economic feasibility. The results of these trials are presented along with recommendations on the formulation of commercial feeds for C. gariepinus. A computer program with which to implement least cost feed formulation by means of linear programming is provided.

Este estudo foi desenvolvido com finalidade de investigar o impacto da espécie exótica Clarias gariepinus no rio Itanhém, BA, tendo como referência o rio Caravelas. Foram analisados 214 estômagos de Clarias gariepinus, Centropomus undecimalis e C. parallelus desses dois locais. Brachyura compôs 92,8% da dieta de C. parallelus do rio Caravelas, enquanto que para C. undecimalis Teleostei compôs 72,5%. No rio Itanhém, os camarões foram mais importantes na alimentação de Clarias gariepinus, e para C. parallelus, Teleostei (98,1%). Não ocorreu sobreposição alimentar em nenhum dos casos estudados. Para caracterizar a ictiofauna, foram capturados 915 indivíduos do rio Caravelas e 2644 indivíduos do rio Itanhém. A espécie mais importante de Caravelas foi Diapterus auratus, e em Itanhém foi Stellifer naso. As variações da abundância da ictiofauna estiveram associadas, principalmente, à variação da salinidade. Para caracterizar as comunidades de pescadores e a problemática do Clarias gariepinus, aplicaram-se questionários socioeconômicos. Segundo os entrevistados (17 de Caravelas e 12 de Alcobaça), a espécie exótica traz como principais problemas, insuficiência de comercialização, predação sobre camarão e diminuição da renda dos pescadores. Pelos resultados desse trabalho não foi possível detectar indícios de mudanças na população de C. parallelus do rio Itanhém, apesar do impacto econômico detectado. / This work was developed in order to investigate the impact of the alien species Clarias gariepinus in the Itanhém River comparing to the adjacent Caravelas River, where this species does not occur. A total of 214 stomachs from C. gariepinus, Centropomus undecimalis, C. parallelus were analyzed. In Caravelas River, Brachyura was the main food item for C. parallelus, and Teleostei for C. undecimalis. In Itanhém River, shrimp was the most important food for C. gariepinus, and Teleostei for C. parallelus. There was no food overlap between the species within and among rivers. To characterize the fish fauna, 915 individuals and 2,644 were captured in Caravelas and Itanhém Rivers, respectively. Diapterus auratus was the most important species in Caravelas, while Stellifer naso in Itanhém. Seasonal variability on fish fauna was related to salinity. Twenty-nine questionnaires were applied to the local fishermen in order to evaluate the impact of the Clarias gariepinus introduction on the ecosystem and fishery. The main problems reported were that the C. gariepinus has no commercial value, they prey on shrimp, and the decreasing profit from fishery. There is no evidence of changes in the Centropomus parallelus population induced by the alien species, despite of its economic impact.

Este estudo foi desenvolvido com finalidade de investigar o impacto da espécie exótica Clarias gariepinus no rio Itanhém, BA, tendo como referência o rio Caravelas. Foram analisados 214 estômagos de Clarias gariepinus, Centropomus undecimalis e C. parallelus desses dois locais. Brachyura compôs 92,8% da dieta de C. parallelus do rio Caravelas, enquanto que para C. undecimalis Teleostei compôs 72,5%. No rio Itanhém, os camarões foram mais importantes na alimentação de Clarias gariepinus, e para C. parallelus, Teleostei (98,1%). Não ocorreu sobreposição alimentar em nenhum dos casos estudados. Para caracterizar a ictiofauna, foram capturados 915 indivíduos do rio Caravelas e 2644 indivíduos do rio Itanhém. A espécie mais importante de Caravelas foi Diapterus auratus, e em Itanhém foi Stellifer naso. As variações da abundância da ictiofauna estiveram associadas, principalmente, à variação da salinidade. Para caracterizar as comunidades de pescadores e a problemática do Clarias gariepinus, aplicaram-se questionários socioeconômicos. Segundo os entrevistados (17 de Caravelas e 12 de Alcobaça), a espécie exótica traz como principais problemas, insuficiência de comercialização, predação sobre camarão e diminuição da renda dos pescadores. Pelos resultados desse trabalho não foi possível detectar indícios de mudanças na população de C. parallelus do rio Itanhém, apesar do impacto econômico detectado. / This work was developed in order to investigate the impact of the alien species Clarias gariepinus in the Itanhém River comparing to the adjacent Caravelas River, where this species does not occur. A total of 214 stomachs from C. gariepinus, Centropomus undecimalis, C. parallelus were analyzed. In Caravelas River, Brachyura was the main food item for C. parallelus, and Teleostei for C. undecimalis. In Itanhém River, shrimp was the most important food for C. gariepinus, and Teleostei for C. parallelus. There was no food overlap between the species within and among rivers. To characterize the fish fauna, 915 individuals and 2,644 were captured in Caravelas and Itanhém Rivers, respectively. Diapterus auratus was the most important species in Caravelas, while Stellifer naso in Itanhém. Seasonal variability on fish fauna was related to salinity. Twenty-nine questionnaires were applied to the local fishermen in order to evaluate the impact of the Clarias gariepinus introduction on the ecosystem and fishery. The main problems reported were that the C. gariepinus has no commercial value, they prey on shrimp, and the decreasing profit from fishery. There is no evidence of changes in the Centropomus parallelus population induced by the alien species, despite of its economic impact.

M.Sc. / Sperm, eggs, free embryos and larvae of the sharptooth catfish, Clarias gariepinus, were used in a series of experiments conducted with zinc and copper salts in a flow-through exposure system. Metal concentrations ranged between 0 to 9mg/1 water. The aim of the study was to determine which of these early life stages was the most sensitive towards these metals and to determine whether the early life stages of the sharptooth catfish could be used for rapid bioassesment studies. Parameters investigated were sperm quality, egg hatchibility, free embryo and larval survival and growth. Within all the parameters tested sperm quality proved to be the least sensitive, with no significant changes noted at the metal concentrations used. There are notable reductions on hatching success embryonic and larval survival and growth as metal concentrations increased. Results revealed that the most sensitive was the free embryo stage directly after, and up to 48 hours after hatching. 48 hour old free embryo displayed 48th L.C.50 values as low as 1.98mg/l for zinc and 0. 0.13mg/l for copper, which indicated that this stage was very sensitive and susceptible to environmental stressors. Since C. gariepinus is an indigeniuos species that is widespread throughout the African continent and considering the sensitivity of the early life stages it is a succesfull candidade for use in rapid bioassessment tests throughout the continent.

Thesis (MPhil (Animal Sciences. Aquaculture))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / In recent years there has been a renewed interest in the commercial culture of African Sharptooth Catfish. Its robust characteristics and its air breathing capabilities makes the African catfish a good candidate for culture in intensive recirculating systems. In light of the size variation in offspring spawned from undomesticated fish, that may eventually increase cannibalism, suitable methods for the quantification of some production performance parameters such as growth and health measurements need to be established for application in intensive catfish culture. In fish the condition factor (CF) reflects information on the physiological state of the fish in relation to its welfare. This factor is expressed as Fulton’s condition index, or the K-factor. African Sharptooth Catfish fry with average weight of 1.9g ± 0.7867 and average length of 59.375mm ±8.812 were equally allocated into ten 1000L-recirculating tanks. The fish were fed a commercial feed to apparent saturation at a frequency of 5 times per day. Sixteen fish were sampled out of each treatment. Weight (g) and length (mm) of each fish were recorded every seven days over a trial period of 175 days from which Fulton’s condition index K was calculated. Results were analysed for significant differences using one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s pair wise comparison test for the various parameters. Growth parameters (a = -5.083, b = 3.004, R2 = 99.4%) derived from the logarithmic relationship between body weight (W) and standard length (L) indicated an isometric growth through the duration of the trail. No significant differences (P>0.05) in condition factors between treatments were found at the beginning of the trail. Significant differences (P<0.05) were found at the end of the trail for weight between ponds and condition factor between treatments. No significant difference (P> 0.05) between length and treatments were found at the end of the trial. Mean condition factor was 0.856 ± 0.187. By using this information on condition factor for African catfish a K-factor calculation chart for African catfish could be calculated, to be used as a practical measurement tool to measure performance goals on catfish farms.

Photoperiod manipulation is routinely used in the aquaculture industry with the aim to enhance growth by manipulating the timing of reproduction in several commercially important temperate fish species. However, there are clear gaps in our understanding of how photoperiod is perceived by the circadian axis and transmitted to the brain to alter reproduction. Furthermore, due to the wide range of environments inhabited by fish, it is unlikely that one single organization exists. It is therefore believed that comparative studies of temperate species “models” with tropical species such as the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) that adapted to different environments characterized by weaker light signals can help in such an aim. A number of studies were therefore performed in this PhD project to expand our knowledge on circadian biology and environmental physiological effects in African catfish. The first aim was to characterize the circadian melatonin system in this species (chapter 3). Results clearly showed that the control of melatonin production by the pineal gland was very different in the African catfish as compared to temperate species such as salmon and trout. Indeed, melatonin production appeared to mainly depend on light stimuli perceived by the eyes as opposed to salmonids where light directly perceived by the pineal gland regulates its own melatonin production within photoreceptors. The main evidence was obtained in ophthalmectomised fish that were unable to synthesize and release melatonin into the blood circulation during the dark period. This was the first time that such a decentralized organisation, similar in a way to the mammalian system, was found in any teleost species. In vitro results also supported such findings as African catfish pineal glands in isolation were not able to normally produce melatonin at night as usually seen in all other fish species studied so far. This indirectly suggested that pineal gland photo-sensitivity might be different in this tropical species. Further studies were performed to better determine the amount of light that can be perceived by the African catfish pineal gland depending on light transmittance though the skull (where the pineal gland is located). Surprisingly, it appeared that catfish cranium act as a stronger light filter than in other species resulting in lower light irradiance of the pineal gland. This could explain, although it still needs to be further confirmed, why African catfish photic control of melatonin produced by the pineal would have evolved differently than in temperate species. The work then focused on better characterizing diel melatonin production and endogenous entrainment through exposure to continuous photic regimes (continuous light, LL or darkness, DD) (chapter 4). Daily melatonin profiles of fish exposed to 12L:12D photoperiod (routinely used in indoor systems) confirmed low melatonin production at day (<10 pg/ml) and increase at night (50 pg/ml) as reported in most vertebrate species studied to date. Interestingly, results also showed that melatonin production or suppression can anticipate the change from night to day with basal melatonin levels observed 45 mins prior to the switch on of the light. These observations clearly suggest the involvement of a clock-controlled system of melatonin secretion that is capable of anticipating the next photophase period. Furthermore, when constant light (LL) was applied, day/night melatonin rhythms were abolished as expected due to the constant photic inhibition of AANAT activity (e.g. one of the enzyme responsible for the conversion of serotonin into melatonin). However when fish were exposed to constant darkness (DD), a strong endogenous melatonin rhythm (maintained for at least 4 days and 18 days in catfish and Nile tilapia respectively) was found, demonstrating once again the presence of robust circadian oscillators in this species. The next aim of the doctoral project was then to investigate circadian behaviour of catfish through locomotor activity studies (Chapter 5). African catfish is again a very interesting “model” due to its reported nocturnal activity rhythmicity as compared to most other teleosts species. Locomotor activity is considered as a very useful tool to elucidate the mechanisms of circadian organization in both invertebrates and vertebrates circadian. Results first confirmed the nocturnal activity rhythms in the species. Furthermore, clear circadian endogenous rhythms were observed under constant light (LL) or darkness (DD) during several days before losing rhythmicity. Interestingly, the activity levels varied depending on the stocking density. Finally, the last aim of this project was to test the effects of a range of photoperiodic manipulations on growth performances, sexual development and reproductive performances in African catfish reared from eggs to puberty. Results did not show any differences at the early sages (up to 90 days post hatching) in growth performances nor mortality (high) between control 12L:12D and LL treatments. In contrast, during the juvenile-adult period (from 120 to 360 DPH), significant growth effects were observed, as previously reported in other catfish species, with fish under LL displaying lower growth rate, food consumption and feed conversion efficiency in comparison to most other treatments (12:12, LL, 6:6, 6:18, 12-LL and LL-12) especially 12l:12D. However, no major effects of the photoperiodic treatments were observed with all fish recruited into puberty and developing gonads although differences in the timing of gametogenesis could be observed, especially a delay (circa 2 months) in females exposed to short daylength (6L:18D and 6L:6D). As for egg quality, egg diameter was the only parameter to differ between treatments (slightly larger in egg batch from LL treated females). Overall, none of the photoperiodic regime suppressed maturation in African catfish as opposed to some temperate species. The work carried out during this PhD project clearly advanced our understanding of circadian rhythmicity, light perception and effects of photoperiod on physiology in a tropical species. Future studies are now required to further characterise the circadian system and link it to evolutionary trends within vertebrates.

Thesis (Ph.D. Physiology)) -- University of Limpopo, 1995 / Refer to document

Aspects of the biology of the sharptooth catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) were studied in a clear coastal lake (Lake Sibaya, KwaZulu.). Catfish reach maturity towards the end of the first year (total length 200-250mm) and breed in summer. Gonadal maturation is cyclical, and most fishes are ripe between September. and January e ach year. Maturation stages and fecundity are described. Twenty-two catfish spawning runs were witnessed. There were no large aggregations of catfish before the Summer rains, as reported in some impoundments and rivers, but catfish accumulated on the shallow terrace immediately before a spawning run. Spawning usually took place in flooded marginal areas after heavy rain on dark calm nights. Peak activity occurred between 20h00 and 02h30. Pre-nuptial aggression, courtship and mating are described and illustrated in detail for the first time from field observations. Gonadal products are released while in amplexus and fertilized externally. The eggs have an adhesive disc for attachment to plants, and develop rapidly. Early development and feeding are described. The growth rate of catfish was determined using rings on the pectoral spines, and validated using recent techniques. C.gariepinus in Lake Sibaya grow rapidly and remain in good condition to a length of 500mm, but larger catfish have a poor growth rate and condition, and few exceed 650mm. The modal length and weight of the Sibaya population is intermediate between that of other populations but the number and condition of larger catfish in Lake Sibaya is lower. Other studies on C.gariepinus growth are reviewed. Very high and low first year increments obtained previously may be due to methodological errors, but catfish do appear to have variable growth rates. The size reached by C.gariepinus is reviewed. Catfish are equipped morphologically and behaviourally to feed on a wide variety of·prey in different situations, but they usually feed at night on exposed, active benthic organisms. Social hunting facilitates the capture of prey which is too fast or manoevrable for a single predator. Food preferences are scored by three different methods and presented for the total catfish population and for different length groups, seasons, and habitats. Juveniles feed more often and on a greater variety of prey, and their condition is better than that of adults. The proportions of several food items in the diet changed at different lake levels as marginal areas became inundated. In particular, increasing lake levels resulted in a change in relative density of three cichlid prey in the shallow water feeding area of catfish. This situation provided the opportunity to study the effect of changing cichlid density on predation by catfish. The world literature on factors influencing the predator-prey relationship in fish is reviewed and several key factors are identified. The interaction of fish predators and prey in Africa, and particularly Lake Sibaya, is examined in detail, and prey density, modified by accessibility, is found to be an important factor. The effect of cichlid prey density on catfish predation was therefore investigated using field collections and experimental observations. Catfish prey on the cichlid species with greatest relative abundance, with some deviations which can be explained in terms of accessibility. The experimental results also describe feeding periodicity, imitative hunting and the effect of water depth , day-night light intensity changes and predator number on predation efficiency on cichlids. Catfish predation is discussed in terms of recent predation theory, and it is concluded that their ability to switch from one prey to another as prey availability (= density+ accessibility) changes , is an an important aspect of their success as predators. Catfish predate more efficiently on invertebrates, but feed largely on fishes after the first year. This preference for fish prey is probably related to food quality, as fishes contributed over 75% of the energy content of all ingested food, as well as abundant protein and the correct amino acid balance. Finally, I conclude that the role of C.gariepinus as a predator on S.mossambicus is three-fold: (a) to enhance species' fitness by removing enfeebled individuals i.e. to act as a 'cleanser' (b) to restrict the distribution of prey under certain conditions i.e. act as a 'restricter' (c) to dampen fluctuations in cichlid abundance i.e. act as a 'regulator'. The relative importance of these roles may alter at different lake levels in Lake Sibaya in response to changes in the vulnerability of fish prey.