<p> Providing psychotherapy to an individual with whom the therapist has a pre-established personal relationship is considered a multiple relationship by the American Psychological Association (APA) (American Psychological Association, 2010; Fisher, 2013). Mental health clinicians consider providing therapy to a friend, co-worker, employee, and individuals with other pre-established social relationship to be unethical (Borys and Pope, 1989; Pope &amp; Keith-Spiegel, 1987; Sanders, Swenson III, &amp; Schneller, 2011), while most clinicians reported rarely providing such services to the previously mentioned individuals (Sanders, et al. 2011). The aforementioned results provide support for the kinds of multiple relationships therapists should not engage in. However, research still has not pinpointed what kinds of interactions are considered therapy. For practical purposes we only considered the type of interaction/therapy technique and if psychologists and undergraduate students rate the ethicality of hypothetical interactions differently based on the type of therapeutic orientation/technique. The current study found that psychologist may have different perceptions of what is considered therapeutic/professional in nature and ethical in nature.</p>

<p> The relationship between high anxiety and poor academic performance has been well established (Eysenck et. al., 2007; Hunsley, 1985; Staal, 2004; Ashcraft &amp; Kirk, 2001). Mindfulness exercises have been successfully used to reduce performance anxiety and increase academic performance (Broderick &amp; Metz, 2009; Crane, et al., 2010; Franco et al., 2010; Napoli, Krech &amp; Holley, 2005; Shapiro, Schwartz &amp; Bonner, 1998). Such exercises have typically been taught by experienced mindfulness facilitators using 16-40 hour courses in mindfulness that are separate from the classroom environment where the skills learned will hopefully be employed (Baer, 2003). Recent research suggests that shorter mindfulness exercises taught via audio recordings produce reductions in anxiety and increases in attention (Britt, 2011). Whether such short mindfulness exercises impact academic performance has not been studied. This study examined whether regularly engaging in a short mindfulness based exercise reduces students&rsquo; anxiety and increased their academic performance. In this study, first year college students in a college algebra class participated in a 3-minute mindfulness exercise at the beginning of each class for a period of six weeks. Anxiety and academic performance were assessed and compared to control groups who did not receive mindfulness training. Students who participated in the mindfulness exercise reported lower state anxiety levels as measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Academic performance was not significantly impacted by engaging in the mindfulness exercise.</p>

<p> This study examined the extent to which biological vulnerability process variables and experiential vulnerability process variables predicted specific eating disorder (ED) symptoms. One-hundred and thirty one participants completed the following questionnaires via an online survey system, Qualtrics: the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire-6, the BIS/BAS scale, the PANAS, the RPI, the EOSS, and a demographic questionnaire. Factor analysis was used to reduce the ED symptom scores to sample-specific ED factors, and multiple regression analyses were used to test the extent to which process variables predicted sample-specific ED factors. Noteworthy was that both experiential vulnerability process variables provided individual contributions to the models, with EOSS component scores significantly predicting all sample-specific ED factors and RPI total significantly predicting the Fear Regarding Body and Food factor and the Restraint factor. Although BIS and PA emerged as significant predictors for some of the sample-specific ED factors, biological vulnerability processes were less likely to be significant predictors. Exploratory analyses examined how process variables contributed to the definition of ED symptom groups. Findings, implications, methodological issues, and recommendations for future research are discussed.</p>

<p>Regulatory focus theory (RFT) proposes two different social-cognitive motivational systems for goal pursuit: a promotion system, which is organized around strategic approach behaviors and "making good things happen," and a prevention system, which is organized around strategic avoidance and "keeping bad things from happening." The promotion and prevention systems have been extensively studied in behavioral paradigms, and RFT posits that prolonged perceived failure to make progress in pursuing promotion or prevention goals can lead to ineffective goal pursuit and chronic distress (Higgins, 1997). </p><p>Research has begun to focus on uncovering the neural correlates of the promotion and prevention systems in an attempt to differentiate them at the neurobiological level. Preliminary research suggests that the promotion and prevention systems have both distinct and overlapping neural correlates (Eddington, Dolcos, Cabeza, Krishnan, & Strauman, 2007; Strauman et al., 2013). However, little research has examined how individual differences in regulatory focus develop and manifest. The development of individual differences in regulatory focus is particularly salient during adolescence, a crucial topic to explore given the dramatic neurodevelopmental and psychosocial changes that take place during this time, especially with regard to self-regulatory abilities. A number of questions remain unexplored, including the potential for goal-related neural activation to be modulated by (a) perceived proximity to goal attainment, (b) individual differences in regulatory orientation, specifically general beliefs about one's success or failure in attaining the two kinds of goals, (c) age, with a particular focus on adolescence, and (d) homozygosity for the Met allele of the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met polymorphism, a naturally occurring genotype which has been shown to impact prefrontal cortex activation patterns associated with goal pursuit behaviors. </p><p>This study explored the neural correlates of the promotion and prevention systems through the use of a priming paradigm involving rapid, brief, masked presentation of individually selected promotion and prevention goals to each participant while being scanned. The goals used as priming stimuli varied with regard to whether participants reported that they were close to or far away from achieving them (i.e. a "match" versus a "mismatch" representing perceived success or failure in personal goal pursuit). The study also assessed participants' overall beliefs regarding their relative success or failure in attaining promotion and prevention goals, and all participants were genotyped for the COMT Val158Met polymorphism. </p><p>A number of significant findings emerged. Both promotion and prevention priming were associated with activation in regions associated with self-referential cognition, including the left medial prefrontal cortex, cuneus, and lingual gyrus. Promotion and prevention priming were also associated with distinct patterns of neural activation; specifically, left middle temporal gyrus activation was found to be significantly greater during prevention priming. Activation in response to promotion and prevention goals was found to be modulated by self-reports of both perceived proximity to goal achievement and goal orientation. Age also had a significant effect on activation, such that activation in response to goal priming became more robust in the prefrontal cortex and in default mode network regions as a function of increasing age. Finally, COMT genotype also modulated the neural response to goal priming both alone and through interactions with regulatory focus and age. Overall, these findings provide further clarification of the neural underpinnings of the promotion and prevention systems as well as provide information about the role of development and individual differences at the personality and genetic level on activity in these neural systems.</p> / Dissertation

Recent research supports the multidimensionality of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), but the structure of ODD symptoms has been inconsistent across studies. Despite differences, each model has an affective dimension, usually shown to be related to internalizing problems, and at least one behavioral dimension, usually shown to be related to externalizing problems. While previous work has examined the etiology of overall ODD, little is known about the etiology of ODD dimensions, or the etiologic relationships between ODD dimensions and later psychopathology. Using archival, longitudinal data from 1255 twin pairs, the current study provides a stringent comparison between competing models of ODD symptom dimensions at age 11, and explores the relationship between the best fitting model and psychopathology assessed via diagnostic interviews at ages 17, 20, and 24. Next, a genetically informative design was used to determine if dimensions of ODD have common and/or unique genetic and environmental influences. Finally, significant relationships found between ODD dimensions and later psychopathology were followed-up with etiological models. Results showed a two-factor model (irritable, headstrong/hurtful) proposed by Rowe, Costello, Angold, Copeland, and Maughan (2010) and a three-factor model (irritable, headstrong, hurtful) proposed by Stringaris and Goodman (2009a) provided the best fit to the data. However, the hurtful dimension of the three-factor model was not uniquely related to any later psychopathology, and thus did not outperform the more parsimonious two-factor model. Consistent with hypotheses, the headstrong/hurtful dimension of the two-factor model was correlated with externalizing problems including substance use disorder symptoms and adult antisocial behavior. The current study did not find the expected relationships between the irritable dimension and later internalizing disorders. Twin modeling showed the irritable and headstrong/hurtful dimensions had shared and unique genetic influences. The headstrong/hurtful dimension also had unique shared environmental influences. Further, the headstrong/hurtful dimension was related to adult disorders through shared genetic influences. Overall, it can be concluded that symptoms of ODD, especially the headstrong/hurtful dimension, pose a significant risk for adult mental health outcomes, and common genetic influences underlie the covariance between headstrong/hurtful symptoms and later psychopathology. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2015. / October 21, 2015. / dimensions, environmental influences, genetic influences, oppositionality / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeanette Taylor, Professor Directing Dissertation; Tomi Gomory, University Representative; Sara Hart, Committee Member; Christopher Lonigan, Committee Member; Chris Schatschneider, Committee Member.

Engagement of individuals with suicide ideation into mental health treatment is a considerable challenge. Previous studies examining barriers and facilitators to service use among suicidal individuals have primarily focused on observed correlates (e.g., demographic characteristics). While there is utility in delineating these characteristics, treatment engagement and retention efforts can be strengthened by assessing belief systems about treatment itself and by determining the association between severity of suicide ideation and views of mental health treatment. In this regard, the first aim of this study was to determine if greater severity of suicide ideation is associated with elevated negative views of treatment. Further, understanding modifiable psychological motivational processes that may underlie the association between suicide ideation and beliefs about treatment may provide insight into appropriate interventions to promote treatment engagement and to retain suicidal individuals who initiate treatment. One useful framework through which to understand these relationships is Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which posits that humans have three basic psychology needs—autonomy, relatedness, and competence—that, when fulfilled, motivate human behavior. Thus, guided by SDT, the second aim of this study was to determine if autonomy, relatedness, and competence separately and/or collectively moderate the association between suicide ideation and negative views of treatment. To test these aims, data were analyzed from a sample of 215 individuals who presented to a community mental health training clinic. Severity of suicide ideation was assessed via the Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS). The psychological needs posited by SDT were assessed via the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS). The Negative Treatment Indicators (TRT) content scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI-2) was utilized as an indicator of views of treatment. The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale was included as a covariate. A series of regression analyses were employed to test relevant main effects and interactions. As predicted, severity of suicide ideation was associated with greater negative views of treatment in both an unadjusted model and a model adjusted for GAF score. There were significant main effects of Self-Determination Theory constructs on negative views of treatment, such that greater psychological needs fulfillment was associated with less negative views of treatment. However, the analyses testing the interaction between suicide ideation and basic psychological needs in the prediction of negative views of treatment were generally not statistically significant. Thus, our finding that, among psychiatric outpatients, greater severity of suicide ideation was associated with more negative views of treatment, even after adjusting for overall functioning, underscores the critical need for further efforts to engage and retain these high-risk individuals into mental health treatment. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester 2015. / October 28, 2015. / negative views of treatment, self-determination theory, suicide ideation / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas E. Joiner, Jr., Professor Co-Directing Thesis; Natalie J. Sachs-Ericsson, Professor Co-Directing Thesis; Roy F. Baumeister, Committee Member.

Objective: There is substantial variability in early diagnostic features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), suggesting heterogeneity in clinical presentation. The present study aims to identify distinct profiles of social communication skills that predict ASD. Method: The Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales (CSBS) Behavior Sample was completed on 981 children at 16-24 months. All children also received a follow-up evaluation at 2-5 years. Two types of decision-learning trees, random forests (RF) and conditional classification and regression tree (CART), were used to analyze CSBS unweighted raw scores to predict diagnostic outcomes of ASD, developmental delay (DD), and typical development (TD). Results: RF results identified gaze shifts and gaze/point follow as the strongest predictors in differentiating diagnostic status. Six additional robust predictors were selected for inclusion in the conditional CART model. Nine profiles emerged and demonstrated an overall classification accuracy of 82.2%. The profile that predicted the largest proportion of children with ASD included low scores on the following CSBS items: gaze shifts, acts for joint attention, understanding, and distal gestures. Another subgroup of children with ASD demonstrated a typical number of gaze shifts, but deficits in gaze/point follow and initiation of joint attention. A third profile, highly predictive of TD, included developmentally appropriate scores on gaze shifts, gaze/point follow, rate of communication, and understanding. T-tests were conducted on children with ASD to examine characteristics of children accurately and inaccurately classified by the conditional CART model. Compared to children correctly classified, misclassified children demonstrated better social communication skills between 16-24 months, and higher verbal and nonverbal developmental levels, fewer restricted/repetitive behaviors, and comparable social communication autism symptoms between 2-5 years. Conclusion: Children diagnosed with ASD demonstrated nine different combinations of social communication skills between 16-24 months of age, suggesting heterogeneous behavioral presentations in the second year of life. Clinical implications and future research directions are discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester 2017. / July 19, 2017. / Includes bibliographical references. / Amy M. Wetherby, Professor Directing Thesis; Chris Schatschneider, Committee Member; Michael J. Kofler, Committee Member.

Impulsivity is often implicated as a factor that facilitates the transition from suicidal thoughts to behaviors; however, findings to date are mixed as to whether this effect is direct or indirect through an increased acquired capability for suicide. These discrepancies may be due to heterogeneous conceptualization and operationalization of impulsivity. The present study aimed to clarify the nature of the relationship between impulsivity and suicidal behavior by investigating relationships between two characterizations of impulsivity—negative urgency and an inability to delay reward—and past number of suicide attempts and the medical lethality of those attempts. Participants (N = 167 undergraduate students, 80.2% female), aged 18 to 43 years (M = 19.31, SD = 2.64) completed measures of their negative urgency, ability to delay reward, and number of past suicide attempts, and were interviewed about the lethality of their past suicidal behavior. Results indicated that negative urgency had a direct association with past suicidal behavior; this was not accounted for by the acquired capability for suicide. Inability to delay reward was unrelated to suicide attempt frequency. Negative urgency, inability to delay reward, and acquired capability were unrelated to suicide attempt lethality. Overall, these findings suggest that a tendency to act rashly in the face of negative affect may lead to increased engagement in suicidal behavior, but not influence the lethality of that behavior, whereas an inability to delay reward may not be related to suicidal behavior. Future research should examine other characterizations of impulsivity in a variety of samples to better understand the nature of the relation between impulsivity and suicide. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the Master of Science. / Spring Semester 2017. / March 2, 2017. / delayed reward, impulsivity, lethality, negative urgency, suicide, suicide attempts / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas E. Joiner, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse R. Cougle, Committee Member; Colleen M. Ganley, Committee Member.

Both psychological and physiological data support the concurrent validity of distinguishing between bulimia nervosa (BN) and purging disorder (PD) based on the presence vs. absence of binge-eating episodes, respectively. However, limited data exist on the predictive validity of this distinction. Differences in outcome or predictors of outcome would support the clinical utility of distinguishing between the two disorders, a key criterion for diagnoses within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The current study sought to describe the long-term outcome of PD and compare that outcome to BN and to examine cognitive (shape/weight concerns), cognitive-affective (depressive symptoms, loss of control eating), and behavioral (eating episode size) predictors of outcome. Exploratory analyses tested if predictors of outcome differed between diagnoses and examined physiological (leptin and postprandial cholecystokinin response) predictors of outcome. Women (N = 217; N = 84 PD, N = 133 BN) were invited to completed diagnostic interviews and questionnaires at a mean (SD) of 10.60 (3.72) years following baseline assessments. Two outcomes were examined: eating disorder status and purging frequency. Of the women sought, 94% were successfully located, and 58 PD and 91 BN participated. Diagnostic stability was observed at follow-up, but outcome did not differ between PD and BN. Within PD, greater depressive symptoms predicted a lower likelihood of remission, and lower leptin levels predicted higher purging frequency at follow-up. Within BN, no variables predicted eating disorder status at follow-up. Fewer shape/weight concerns, greater loss of control eating frequency, and a larger postprandial cholecystokinin response each predicted a higher purging frequency in BN at follow-up; however, these models should be interpreted cautiously due to difficulties with model fit. Exploratory analyses indicated that baseline diagnosis did not significantly moderate associations between predictors and outcome. Taken together, results do not provide conclusive support for distinguishing between PD and BN based on outcome or predictors of outcome. Findings may reflect the longer duration of follow-up in this study compared to prior work. More work on empirically supported treatments in PD, and potential differences in response between PD and BN, are needed to fully evaluate the clinical utility of distinguishing between PD and BN and to inform diagnostic schemes. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2018. / April 16, 2018. / bulimia nervosa, loss of control eating, outcome, purging, purging disorder / Includes bibliographical references. / Pamela K. Keel, Professor Directing Dissertation; Mark Winegardner, University Representative; Thomas E. Joiner, Committee Member; Norman B. Schmidt, Committee Member; Diana L. Williams, Committee Member.

Emotional eating, or eating in response to negative emotions, represents a valuable construct of study due to its transdiagnostic nature (Habhab, Sheldon, & Loeb, 2009; Masheb & Grilo, 2006) and associations with obesity (Laitinen, Ek, & Sovio, 2002). As such, research on emotional eating could inform interventions that would be applicable to individuals with both full threshold and subclinical eating pathology. While research supports a relationship between increased negative affect and emotional eating, limited empirical work has tested the role of cognitive biases in the link between negative affect and emotional eating. This represents an important avenue for research due to the theoretical role cognitive biases play in models of binge eating (Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991). The present study recruited N = 90 women as either control (n=40) or emotional eating participants (n=50) to complete a self-report questionnaire battery, an implicit computer test of cognitive biases, a speech task stress induction, and an ad lib test meal. Participants with emotional eating had higher levels of negative affect and cognitive biases than individuals without such symptoms. Implicit and explicit cognitive biases significantly mediated the relationship between group and global negative affect. However, negative affect did not significantly mediate the relationship between cognitive biases and food consumption following stress. Given that our hypotheses were partially supported, further examination of the relationship between cognitive biases and emotional eating is warranted to determine if there is potential benefit in modifying cognitive biases to reduce emotional eating symptoms. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2018. / May 14, 2018. / Includes bibliographical references. / Pamela K. Keel, Professor Directing Dissertation; Debra Fadool, University Representative; Thomas Joiner, Committee Member; Walter Boot, Committee Member; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member.