A linear diffusion test in sedimentation tubes filled with caseinagar gel successfully measured milk clotting enzymes at concentrations of 10-4 to 1 X 10-l rennin units/ml with 95% accuracy. Diffusion rates were unaffected by diluting enzyme samples with whey, 3% NaCl, and water, The distribution of rennet, porcine pepsin, mucor pusillus var Lindt (MP) protease, and rennet-pepsin mixtures between curd and whey was determined on milk coagulated at pH 5.2, 6.0, 6.4, and 6.6. The procedure accounted for 100 + 7% of the added enzymes. The distribution of rennet was pH dependent with 31% and 72% in curd and whey respectively at pH 6.6, and 864 and 174 respectively at pH 5.2. The distribution of MP protease was independent of pH with approximately 154 and 85% in the curd and whey at all pH values. Pepsin behaved similar to rennet but was unstable above pH 6.0. During Cheddar cheese making, 7% and 58% of the original rennet, 6% and 93% of the original MP protease, and 5% and 17% of the original rennet-pepsin mix was active in the curd and whey respectively at dipping. After overnight pressing, 6% of the rennet, 3% of MP protease, and 4% of the rennet-pepsin mix remained active in the cheese. At dipping only 9% of the original pepsin was detected in the whey. Pepsin was unstable at pH values used to release the enzyme from the curd and could not be quantitated.

Eliminating calcium chloride and replacing whole casein with k-casein eliminated clouding and sharpened diffusion boundaries in casein-agar gels used for the estimation of residual milk clotting enzymes in curd and whey. It also eliminated the need for a highly purified calcium-free agar. The substrate contained .54 percent k-casein, 3.6 percent sodium acetate, .73 percent bacto-agar and 95.13 percent water. The pH was adjusted to 5.9 with .lN hydrochloric acid. Proteases derived from Mucor pusillus var Lindt, Mucor Miehei and Endothia parasitica, as well as rennet, procine and bovine pepsins were used at recommended levels to set milk for Cheddar cheese manufacture. Whey samples from each lot were taken at draining and adjusted to pH 5.2, 5.6, 6.0, 6.2, 6.6 and 7.0 prior to being heated to 68.3C, 71.1C and 73.9C for .25, .5, 1, 5, and 10 minutes. Enzyme activities were assayed before and after heating. Mucor miehei protease was the most heat stable at all pH values followed by Mucor pusillus protease, rennet, bovine pepsin, E. parasitica protease and porcine pepsin. The heat stability of all enzymes except E. parasitica protease decreased with increasing pH, E. parasitica protease decreased with decreasing pH. All enzymes were inactivated at the minimum heat treatment at pH 7.0 except E. parasitica protease which was most stable at that pH. At pH 5.2 M. miehei protease persisted after a 10 minute treatment at 73.9C.

Die Dicklegung der Milch, ausgehend von der hydrolytischen Spaltung des κ-Caseins, stellt den ersten essentiellen Schritt in der Käseherstellung dar. Dabei finden Gerinnungsenzyme verschiedener Herkunft Anwendung, deren neueste Varianten auf Grundlage des aktuellen Forschungsstandes umfassend charakterisiert werden. Verschiedene Kälberlabpräparate, mikrobielle Gerinnungsenzyme aus Rhizomucor miehei und mit Hilfe von gentechnisch modifizierten Mikroorganismen gewonnenes Chymosin (FPC) aus Rind und Kamel werden mittels HPLC und Elektrophorese hinsichtlich ihrer Zusammensetzung analysiert. Die neueste Generation mikrobieller Enzyme weist im Gegensatz zur herkömmlichen Variante keine Nebenkomponenten und damit einen höheren Aufreinigungsgrad auf. Die unspezifische proteolytische Aktivität wird durch fluorimetrische Quantifizierung der in 12 % TCA löslichen Stickstoffkomponenten bestimmt, die nach Inkubation rekonstituierter Magermilch bei 32 °C und pH 6,5 über 24 h mit den Enzymen freigesetzt werden. Mikrobielle Gerinnungsenzyme besitzen eine signifikant höhere unspezifische proteolytische Aktivität gegenüber chymosinbasierten Präparaten, deren Auswirkung sich bei Erhöhung der zugegebenen Enzymmenge besonders ausgeprägt darstellen. Oszillationsrheometrische Analysen lassen bei gleicher Enzymaktivität eine geringere Gelfestigkeit nach 40 min bei Einsatz von mikrobiellen Präparaten im Vergleich zu Kälberlab und bovinem FPC erkennen. Zusätzlich wird eine Abhängigkeit der Flockungszeit und der Gelfestigkeit vom eingesetzten Substrat beobachtet, die für Chymosin aus Kamel besonders stark ausgeprägt ist. Die Substratspezifität dieses Enzyms ist weder mit der des bovinen Chymosins noch mit der der mikrobiellen Gerinnungsenzyme identisch. Im Rahmen von Käsungsversuchen im Labor-, Pilot- und Industriemaßstab wird eine signifikant höhere Käseausbeute (0,50 - 1,19 %) bei Verwendung vom traditionellem Kälberlab im Vergleich zur neuesten Generation der kommerziellen mikrobiellen Substitute ermittelt. Im Verlaufe der Reifung von Schnittkäse wird durch mikrobielles Gerinnungsenzym gegenüber Kälberlab eine signifikant höhere Menge an Nichtproteinstickstoff freigesetzt sowie ein unterschiedliches Profil an Proteinabbauprodukten gebildet. Die höhere proteolytische Aktivität resultiert in einer signifikant stärker ausgeprägten Bitterkeit der mit mikrobiellem Gerinnungsenzym hergestellten Käse nach 12 Wochen Reifungszeit. / Clotting of milk caused by hydrolytic cleavage of κ-casein is the first important step in cheese milk processing. This cleavage is caused by clotting enzymes of different origin, which are comprehensively characterized by considering results of latest investigations. The composition of selected calf rennets, microbial coagulants derived from Rhizomucor miehei and genetically engineered chymosin (FPC) derived from cow and camel is analyzed by HPLC and electrophoresis. In contrast to conventional products, the latest generation of microbial coagulants does not show minor components in a detectable amount because of a sufficient purification. The unspecific proteolytic activity is determined by fluorimetric quantification of 12 % tricloric-acid-soluble nitrogen, which is released by the enzymes from reconstituted skim milk, pH 6.5, after incubation at 32 °C for 24 h. Microbial coagulants show a significantly higher unspecific proteolysis as compared to chymosin-based clotting enzymes, especially when the enzymes are added in amount higher than used during cheese-making. Small amplitude oscillation rheometry analysis showed a lower gel firmness after 40 min of gelling when microbial coagulants were applied instead of calf rennet or FPC. Furthermore, flocculation time, gel formation time and gel firmness additionally depends on the test substrate, and this dependency is exceptionally pronounced when camel chymosin was used. The substrate specificity of this enzyme is neither identical to that of bovine chymosin nor to that of microbial coagulants. Cheese making experiments in laboratory-, pilot- and commercial-scale revealed a significantly higher cheese yield (0.50 - 1.19 %) when using calf rennet instead of microbial coagulant of the latest generation. During ripening of semi-hard cheese a higher amount of non-protein-nitrogen was released and a different electrophoretic casein degradation profile was generated when using microbial enzymes. Enhanced proteolysis is responsible for a significantly higher pronounced bitterness of microbial produced cheese after 12 weeks of maturation.

Die Dicklegung der Milch, ausgehend von der hydrolytischen Spaltung des κ-Caseins, stellt den ersten essentiellen Schritt in der Käseherstellung dar. Dabei finden Gerinnungsenzyme verschiedener Herkunft Anwendung, deren neueste Varianten auf Grundlage des aktuellen Forschungsstandes umfassend charakterisiert werden. Verschiedene Kälberlabpräparate, mikrobielle Gerinnungsenzyme aus Rhizomucor miehei und mit Hilfe von gentechnisch modifizierten Mikroorganismen gewonnenes Chymosin (FPC) aus Rind und Kamel werden mittels HPLC und Elektrophorese hinsichtlich ihrer Zusammensetzung analysiert. Die neueste Generation mikrobieller Enzyme weist im Gegensatz zur herkömmlichen Variante keine Nebenkomponenten und damit einen höheren Aufreinigungsgrad auf. Die unspezifische proteolytische Aktivität wird durch fluorimetrische Quantifizierung der in 12 % TCA löslichen Stickstoffkomponenten bestimmt, die nach Inkubation rekonstituierter Magermilch bei 32 °C und pH 6,5 über 24 h mit den Enzymen freigesetzt werden. Mikrobielle Gerinnungsenzyme besitzen eine signifikant höhere unspezifische proteolytische Aktivität gegenüber chymosinbasierten Präparaten, deren Auswirkung sich bei Erhöhung der zugegebenen Enzymmenge besonders ausgeprägt darstellen. Oszillationsrheometrische Analysen lassen bei gleicher Enzymaktivität eine geringere Gelfestigkeit nach 40 min bei Einsatz von mikrobiellen Präparaten im Vergleich zu Kälberlab und bovinem FPC erkennen. Zusätzlich wird eine Abhängigkeit der Flockungszeit und der Gelfestigkeit vom eingesetzten Substrat beobachtet, die für Chymosin aus Kamel besonders stark ausgeprägt ist. Die Substratspezifität dieses Enzyms ist weder mit der des bovinen Chymosins noch mit der der mikrobiellen Gerinnungsenzyme identisch. Im Rahmen von Käsungsversuchen im Labor-, Pilot- und Industriemaßstab wird eine signifikant höhere Käseausbeute (0,50 - 1,19 %) bei Verwendung vom traditionellem Kälberlab im Vergleich zur neuesten Generation der kommerziellen mikrobiellen Substitute ermittelt. Im Verlaufe der Reifung von Schnittkäse wird durch mikrobielles Gerinnungsenzym gegenüber Kälberlab eine signifikant höhere Menge an Nichtproteinstickstoff freigesetzt sowie ein unterschiedliches Profil an Proteinabbauprodukten gebildet. Die höhere proteolytische Aktivität resultiert in einer signifikant stärker ausgeprägten Bitterkeit der mit mikrobiellem Gerinnungsenzym hergestellten Käse nach 12 Wochen Reifungszeit. / Clotting of milk caused by hydrolytic cleavage of κ-casein is the first important step in cheese milk processing. This cleavage is caused by clotting enzymes of different origin, which are comprehensively characterized by considering results of latest investigations. The composition of selected calf rennets, microbial coagulants derived from Rhizomucor miehei and genetically engineered chymosin (FPC) derived from cow and camel is analyzed by HPLC and electrophoresis. In contrast to conventional products, the latest generation of microbial coagulants does not show minor components in a detectable amount because of a sufficient purification. The unspecific proteolytic activity is determined by fluorimetric quantification of 12 % tricloric-acid-soluble nitrogen, which is released by the enzymes from reconstituted skim milk, pH 6.5, after incubation at 32 °C for 24 h. Microbial coagulants show a significantly higher unspecific proteolysis as compared to chymosin-based clotting enzymes, especially when the enzymes are added in amount higher than used during cheese-making. Small amplitude oscillation rheometry analysis showed a lower gel firmness after 40 min of gelling when microbial coagulants were applied instead of calf rennet or FPC. Furthermore, flocculation time, gel formation time and gel firmness additionally depends on the test substrate, and this dependency is exceptionally pronounced when camel chymosin was used. The substrate specificity of this enzyme is neither identical to that of bovine chymosin nor to that of microbial coagulants. Cheese making experiments in laboratory-, pilot- and commercial-scale revealed a significantly higher cheese yield (0.50 - 1.19 %) when using calf rennet instead of microbial coagulant of the latest generation. During ripening of semi-hard cheese a higher amount of non-protein-nitrogen was released and a different electrophoretic casein degradation profile was generated when using microbial enzymes. Enhanced proteolysis is responsible for a significantly higher pronounced bitterness of microbial produced cheese after 12 weeks of maturation.

Orientadores: Marcelo Cristianini, Alline Artigiani Lima Tribst / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-24T06:58:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LeiteJunior_BunoRicardodeCastro_M.pdf: 4205771 bytes, checksum: 2ccdbecbd8ae2dc92dd1978fbf86b48b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: A homogeneização à alta pressão (HAP) é um processo capaz de alterar a conformação e funcionalidade de enzimas. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram: (i) avaliar a influência da HAP até 190 MPa nas atividades proteolítica e de coagulação do leite bem como na estabilidade de quatro enzimas coagulantes do leite, (ii) acompanhar o processo de coagulação por ensaios reológicos e (iii) avaliar o desenvolvimento dos géis por 24 horas por meio das análises de proteólise, sinérese, reologia e microscopia. As avaliações foram feitas comparando-se os resultados obtidos com as enzimas processadas e não processadas. O coalho de vitelo processado a 190 MPa apresentou redução de 52% na atividade proteolítica, aumento da taxa de coagulação do leite e gel formado mais consistente. A avaliação deste gel por 24h indicou a formação de uma rede proteica com menor proteólise, maior sinérese, maior consistência e menor porosidade. Após processamento a 150 MPa, o coalho de bovino adulto apresentou redução da atividade proteolítica, aumento da atividade e estabilidade de coagulação do leite, maior taxa de coagulação do leite e formação de gel com maior consistência. O gel se mostrou mais compacto, firme e com maior expulsão do soro da matriz proteica nas 24h em que foi avaliado. A protease fúngica do Rhizomucor miehei foi a enzima mais resistente ao processo de HAP, sofrendo mínima ou nenhuma alteração na atividade proteolítica e de coagulação do leite quando processada até 190 MPa em diferentes concentrações e em múltiplos processos consecutivos. Entretanto, na avaliação reológica da coagulação do leite utilizando-se a protease fúngica homogeneizada a 190 MPa por até 3 ciclos ou quando homogeneizada a 190 MPa em soluções com concetração de 20 % foi observado aumento da consistência do gel. Para pepsina suína, as alterações na atividade proteolítica e de coagulação do leite só foram observadas durante a estocagem, com redução na atividade proteolítica e um aumento na atividade de coagulação do leite para enzima processada a 150 MPa. No entanto, esta enzima processada promoveu uma coagulação do leite mais rápida formando um gel mais consistente, mesmo imediatamente após o processamento por HAP. Durante a observação deste gel por 24h, este se mostrou mais compacto, firme, menos poroso e com maior liberação de soro da matriz proteica. De uma forma geral foi possível concluir que as maiores pressões aplicadas (150 MPa e 190 MPa) afetaram positivamente as enzimas avaliadas, com redução da atividade proteolítica inespecífica e aumento da atividade de coagulação de leite, com consequente formação de géis com menores níveis de proteólise, o que favorece a manutenção da rede proteica rígida, firme e coesa. Desta forma, conclui-se que a HAP é um processo promissor que pode ser aplicado como uma tecnologia para melhorar as características hidrolíticas das enzimas coagulantes do leite, especialmente quando se deseja diminuir atividade proteolítica e aumentar sua atividade de coagulação do leite. Além disso, a menor proteólise no gel pode resultar numa extensão da vida de prateleira de queijos frescos, por, possivelmente, reduzir a formação de compostos de sabor indesejável / Abstract: High pressure homogenization (HPH) is a process that can alter the conformation and functionality of enzymes. The objectives of this study were: (i) evaluate the influence of HPH up to 190 MPa on the proteolytic and milk-clotting activities and stability of four milk-clotting enzymes, (ii) monitor the coagulation process by rheological assays and (iii) evaluate the gel development for 24 hours analyzing proteolysis, syneresis, rheological and microstructural behavior. The evaluations were performed by comparing the results between the processed and non-processed enzymes. The calf rennet processed at 190 MPa decreased 52 % its proteolytic activity, increased the rate of milk-clotting and a more consistent gel was formed. The evaluation of the gel for 24 hours indicated the formation of a protein network with lower proteolysis, higher syneresis, higher consistency and lower porosity. After processing at 150 MPa adult bovine rennet showed a reduction proteolytic activity, increase activity and stability of milk-clotting, higher milk-clotting rate and formed more consistent gels. This gel was more compact, firm and higher whey separation of protein matrix during the 24 hours of evaluation. The fungal protease from Rhizomucor miehei was the most resistant enzyme to the HPH process, showing minimal or no change in proteolytic activity and milk coagulation when processed up to 190 MPa at different concentrations and multiple consecutive processes. However, in the rheological evaluation of milk coagulation using fungal protease homogenized to 190 MPa for up 3 cycles or when homogenized in a solution with a concentration of 20% observed increase in the consistency of the gel. For porcine pepsin, changes on proteolytic activity and milk coagulation were only observed during storage, with reduction of proteolytic activity and an increase on the milk-clotting activity for the enzyme processed at 150 MPa. However, this enzyme promoted a faster coagulation of milk forming more consistent gel immediately after the processing by HPH. During the observation of this gel for 24 hours, this was more compact, firm, less porous and more release of whey of the protein matrix. Overall it was concluded that the highest applied pressures (150 MPa and 190 MPa) positively affected the enzymes with reduced nonspecific proteolytic activity and increased milk-clotting activity, with consequent formation of gels with lower levels of proteolysis, which favors the maintenance of a network of protein rigid, firm and cohesive. Thus, it is concluded that HPH is a promising process that can be applied as a technology to improve the hydrolytic characteristics of milk coagulating enzymes, especially to reduce proteolytic activity and increase the milk-clotting activity. Furthermore, the lower proteolysis in the gel may result in an extension of the shelf life of fresh cheese, by possibly reducing the formation of bitterness flavor / Mestrado / Tecnologia de Alimentos / Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Effect of added calcium ions on the relative milk clotting activities of porcine pepsin, Mucor miehei protease, Endothia parasitica protease, and Mucor pusillus protease was compared with that of rennin. Skimmilk, maintained at pH 6. 3 with 0.000% to 0.030% added calcium chloride, was used as a substrate. The coagulation activity of Mucor pusillus protease appeared to be most sensitive to calcium ions, followed by Mucor rniehei protease, porcine pepsin, rennin, and Endothia parasitica protease. The clotting activities of Mucor pusillus protease were also more sensitive than rennin to added calcium ions in milk samples maintained at pH values of 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6. Mucor pusillus protease and rennin were standardized to equal activities in skimmilk maintained at pH 6.3 and 6.6 containing 0.020% added CaCl2. For skimmilk maintained at pH 6.3, Mucor pusillus protease concentrations ix that gave the same clotting times as rennin in skimmilk containing 0.000% and 0.010% added CaCl2, were 9.6% and 4.5% higher than its standardized concentration. While at pH 6.6 Mucor pusillus protease concentrations were 13.2% and 5.8% higher.