As population pressures rise there are associated increases in development, resource use, competition and environmental threats. These increases, contribute to the intensification of conflict within the coastal zone. Dispute resolution techniques must be incorporated into the management of coastal resources. Negotiation use is one means of dispute resolution. The goal of this thesis is to establish whether and how negotiation is used in coastal zone management. Two bodies of literature were reviewed. Literature on North American coastal zone management was examined to characterize management approaches with particular reference to the FREMP and the PSWQA. Literature on negotiation was reviewed to develop a framework for analyzing the use of negotiation in resolving coastal zone management conflicts. The FREMP and PSWQA provide two case studies for examining the use of negotiation in resolving coastal zone management conflicts. In each case, two comparable decision-making bodies were examined: the FREMP Management Committee Executive (MCE) and the Standing Committee on the Water Quality Plan (WQSC) and the PSWQA Authority Board (AB) and Point Source Committee (PSC). Data on the use of negotiation were collected by telephone interviews with people involved in each of the four decision-making processes. The management areas of the Fraser River Estuary and the Puget Sound are comparable in that both are located in the Pacific Northwest of North America with similar climates and natural resources, and are experiencing growing population and development pressures. The management processes differ in the scale of areas covered (estuary versus basin), the size of the populations (the Fraser Estuary is half the population of Puget Sound) and the approach to coastal zone management (coordinator versus player; smaller versus larger budgets; lesser versus greater public involvement). There is no use of "explicit" negotiation in the four decision-making processes examined in the case studies. “Explicit" negotiation use is identified when there is explicit expression of the use of negotiation in the decision-making. "Implicit" negotiation is identified when people make trade-offs to adopt an agreement without explicitly expressing they are doing so (Dorcey and Riek, 1987), and is routinely used in all four decision-making situations. There is no use of any outside third party assistance such as mediators or facilitators in the negotiations; however, the FREMP Programs Coordinator facilitates the MCE negotiations and the PSWQA AB chair mediates the Board meetings. The implicit negotiations of the FREMP and the PSWQA exhibited a high degree of "structure" with the greatest extent in the PSWQA. "Structured" negotiations are identified as negotiations that actively seek to reach agreement by incorporating structure into the decision-making process through: the utilization of preparatory techniques, opportunity for the representation of affected interests, the utilization of explicit agreement criteria, some means to commit to the agreed-upon actions. Future coastal zone management should recognize the “implicit" use of negotiation since it is used so extensively within coastal zone management and evaluate the contribution of "implicit" negotiation in coastal zone management. Finally, consideration must be given to making the use of negotiation in coastal zone management "explicit" so that means are actively sought to resolve coastal resource use conflicts.

Humans are responsible for global-scale alteration of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) biogeochemical cycles to support food production. Increases in N and P inputs into soils and waste-streams has resulted in excessive nutrient loading to surface waters, including the Mississippi River, leading to eutrophication. Here I investigated N and P dynamics occurring in the Lake Pontchartrain Estuary and Basin. I measured two biogeochemical processes using intact sediment core incubations and quantified their importance in the context of nutrient-rich Mississippi River flood diversions through the Bonnet Carré Spillway. I show that diffusion of nitrate-N into sediments accounts for a substantial magnitude of nitrate loss from the water column during diversions, but plays a relatively minor role in the transformation of the large amount of nitrate received. Diffusive flux of P from sediments is a significant source of dissolved inorganic P to the water column and may be an important contributor to summertime blooms of N-fixing harmful algae. I present a comparative analysis of ecosystem response in Lake Pontchartrain during the three most recent Bonnet Carré Spillway openings (1997, 2008, and 2011). Nutrients in the Mississippi River diversion plume are rapidly depleted during summertime, after which sediment P loading restores N-limited conditions. Several interrelated chemical and physical parameters influence ecosystem response during diversion events and there is no simple stimulus-response relationship between N loading and harmful cyanobacterial blooms. In 2011, cyanobacteria were likely suppressed by hydraulic flushing. Accounting for P and improving human P use efficiency are critical tasks given the finite global supply of phosphate rock. I used material flow analysis to examine anthropogenic P cycling in the Upper Pontchartrain Basin for 2001-2005 and 2006-2010. Mass balances encompassed human-mediated P fluxes in food production and consumption subsystems across agricultural, developed, and forested landscapes. Increases in fertilizer and oil prices were correlated to drastic reductions (78%) in purchased inorganic P fertilizer. The dominant source of P input shifted from food production to the consumption subsystem between periods. Leakage to the Pontchartrain Estuary and the Mississippi River represented 18-24% of total P input, while the vast majority accumulated within soils, wastewater systems, and landfills.

River deltas are dynamic depositional environments that are controlled to varying degrees by coastal and fluvial forces. Plant communities in deltas respond to many of the same allogenic forces that shape delta geomorphology. This study examines the factors that influence plant community development, productivity, and species distributions in the Wax Lake delta, a young, actively pro-grading river delta in coastal Louisiana, USA. A species distribution map created using high-resolution 8-band WorldView-2 imagery was found to have an overall accuracy of 75 percent. Classification tree analysis suggested that most of the observed variation in plant species distributions within the delta can be explained by variables related to flooding, riverine and tidal flushing, soil development, ecological succession, and exposure. This full model explained 65 percent of the spatial variability, compared to 54 percent explained by elevation alone, indicating that elevation is the most important driver of species distributions in this deltaic system. Analysis of a time series of NDVI data derived from 94 Landsat images from 1973 to 2011 suggests that both total and mean plant community productivity within the delta has increased over time and that seasonal fluctuations occur that are related to water temperature and discharge. While significant short-term decreases in NDVI were found following five major storm events, in each case, total and mean NDVI recovered to within the 95 percent prediction interval of the long-term trend by the following growing season. Following the historic 2011 Mississippi River flood, the area of the delta increased by nearly 5 km2. Greater increases in delta area occurred at higher water levels, suggesting substantial vertical accretion across much of the subaerial delta. The plant community responded to this vertical accretion by shifting to higher elevation species across nearly 9 km2 of the delta. Overall, these results indicate that the plant community in the Wax Lake delta is largely driven by allogenic factors related to delta geomorphology and is increasing in productivity as the delta continues to accrete over time. The marshes in the delta show great resilience to storm disturbance, and a strong response to allogenic succession driven by extreme flood events.

With over ~2600 oil and gas platforms (platforms) remaining in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Gulf), the Gulf States have access to one of the most unique fisheries in the world. Because of high abundances of game fishes around platform legs and the popular belief that platforms enhance fish stocks, both Louisiana and Texas have created artificial reef programs based upon the decommissioning of platforms. As oil and gas fields continue to be retired, oil and gas companies may find that reefing or toppling a platform may be a more economically viable alternative to complete removal of material. Questions remain about how platforms should be decommissioned and whether the moved material affects fish density by changing habitat complexity. In this study, I define habitat complexity as a change in one or all of three variables: vertical relief, footprint and volume of the structure. The objective of this study was to show which of these variables has the greatest effect on changes in fish density with depth in the water column and distance from the site. Mobile hydroacoustic surveys were taken over a period of four years, yielding target strength (TS) (dB) values and mean volume backscattering strength (MVBS) values that could be converted into fish per cubic meter, or fish density. Upon reefing, fish density at the site increased. There was no significant change in density with distance from the site but depth proved to be an important factor. Overall density increased after reefing, with the most substantial increase shown in between 40-60 m depth within the water column, the layer that contained most of the platform material after reefing. The reefed site decreased in vertical relief but increased in footprint and volume. A regression tree revealed that volume was the variable responsible for the greatest variability among densities. Even though there was a much greater percent change in overall footprint compared to volume after reefing (1,024% increase in footprint versus 55% increase in volume) volumes are 3 dimensional (m3 vs. m2) and the platforms permeable, allowing fish to seek refuge within the site.

This study characterizes the development and migration of blowouts within Padre Island National Seashore (PAIS). A combination of aerial photographs and Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) are used to track the migration of eighteen blowouts, while Ground-penetrating Radar (GPR) is used to investigate the subsurface at two smaller sites in the study area. This data, coupled with beach morphology and changing anthropogenic factors, helps understand why the dune blowouts develop and are restricted to a particular section of the National Seashore. Aerial Photographs taken at least twice a decade since 1969 were used to track blowouts. Each blowout was digitized in order to understand its morphometric characteristics by studying its length, width, area, segmentation, perimeter, and the width of the neck, when present, through the foredune. The velocity and direction of movement were also calculated. Cluster analysis was used to analyze the blowouts using these morphological variables. Based on this data, blows appear to group into two morphologically different clusters. Blowouts grouped into Cluster 1 are longer, thinner, have smaller perimeters and areas, smaller throat widths, and are furthest from the beach access road. A lower dune elevation leads to a larger wave runup to crest height ratio. A larger ratio suggests that the dunes are more easily overtopped during large storms, thus scarping, a precursor to blowout development, is increased. Cluster 2 blowouts tend to be longer, wider, and stabilized faster leading to a more undulated perimeter in addition to a smaller wave runup potential due to a higher dune elevation. Historically blowouts covered the entire northern portion of PAIS. In the 1970’s the portion of the beach north of Park Road 22 was designated as non-driving. Since then all blowouts in this section have revegetated, while, blowouts in the driving section are still active. Beach driving pulverizes seaweed leading to less deposition along the dune toe and therefore a lower elevation of the backshore. As a result there is a greater wave runup in storms leading to an increase in susceptibility to scarping, and therefore, blowouts. Despite the fact that storms are the primary mechanism for blow development, anthropogenic effects, such as vehicle traffic, flatten the beach profile allowing for lower areas to become inundated during storms. This, along with decreased sediment budget and increased storm frequency increases the potential for blowouts to form events and leave the island vulnerable to an increased rate of sea level rise. GPR surveys were completed at two sites; an active blowout with a foredune that is not completely reestablished (Site 1) and a blowout that is stabilized by vegetation (Site 2). Six GPR surveys were completed at Site 1 and four surveys were completed at Site 2 that show the preservation of historic phases, surfaces, and facies used to interpret sequences and compare to aerial photography and LiDAR data. Site 1 moves through five phases that begin in 1969 and end at the present location, while Site 2 moves through three active phases and then ends in a fourth phase by becoming completely stabilized with vegetation in 2010.

The Deep Water Horizon (DWH) oil spill resulted in the largest accidental release of crude oil in U.S. waters with both short- and long-term effects on the marine environment. Extensive studies conducted immediately following the oil spill in the northern Gulf of Mexico provided greater understanding of the physical processes influencing the distribution of the released oil, including the use of optical detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a toxic crude oil fraction in the northern Gulf of Mexico. In this study, the optical properties of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) and the concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were examined from seawater samples collected during two cruises in April of 2012 and 2013 near the DWH spill site in the northern Gulf of Mexico. During both 2012 and 2013, eddies associated with the Loop Current appeared to strongly influence the hydrography at the study site with deeper mixed-layer depths in 2012 than in 2013. Average DOC concentrations were similar in 2013 (mean 0.96 +- 0.20 mg L-1) in comparison to 2012 (0.85 +- 0.25 mg L-1) with higher levels in the near surface waters than at depths. Absorption and fluorescence properties of CDOM for samples obtained in 2013 revealed both the characteristics and composition of CDOM near the DWH site. Absorption coefficients at 355 nm (aCDOM(355) m-1) used to quantify CDOM in seawater varied over a small range and showed elevated values at depths corresponding to or just below the chlorophyll fluorescence maxima suggesting autochthonous contribution to the CDOM pool. In contrast to river-influenced coastal regions, relationships between CDOM optical properties and salinity were not clear due to the small salinity range in the study region. Excitation-emission matrix fluorescence (EEMs) of CDOM revealed the presence of typical humic-like and protein-like fluorophores. Parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) of EEMs resulted in four fluorescent components characterized as humic-like (two) and protein-like (two). Higher values of protein-like components both in surface and depth at stations with more elevated surface chlorophyll fluorescence north of the DWH suggests biological contribution to the CDOM pool and its fluxes to depths with implications to related fluxes of contaminants such as PAHs.

Bycatch refers to the portion of the catch that is captured incidentally to the target species and is one of many growing problems facing the world's marine fisheries in recent years. Prawn trawling is one of the world's most lucrative marine fisheries, contributing about 3% to the total annual production of the world's marine fisheries. It is also one the most wasteful because it is associated with large quantities of bycatch. This is because of the high diversity and abundance of other organisms in areas where prawn trawling occurs, and the non-selective nature of the otter trawl used to land prawns. The South African shallow water prawn trawl fishery is typical of penaeid fisheries, and operates on the Tugela Bank off northern KwaZulu-Natal. The bycatch of penaeid prawn trawlers operating on the Tugela Bank was analysed between March 2003-July 2004 as a follow up to an initial study between May 1989-June 1992. The aim of this study was to determine if there has been any change in bycatch species composition over the 13-years and to determine the impacts of trawling on the environment. Catch composition data were recorded from 168 trawls processed onboard trawlers and on-shore. A total of 122 species was identified with teleosts contributing more than 60% to relative abundance by number. Comparison between the 1989-1992 and 2003-2004 data sets showed that although the species compositions were similar, there was an increase in the relative abundance of pelagic species. It is not clear if the change is due to trawling impacts or due to fluctuations in recruitment of these taxa. The annual discarded bycatch was estimated at 88 tonnes in 2003 and the prawn catch was estimated at 1 1 tonnes, both substantially lower than in 1 989-1992. There was no difference in discard rate between trawls from shallow and medium depths. However, there were significant differences in discard rates between large and medium gears, and warm (December-April) and cool (May- November) seasons. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests revealed that there were significant differences between the 1990s and 2000s length frequency distributions of three sciaenid species (Otolithes ruber, Johnius dorsalis and J. fuscolineatus), which all showed an increase in fish size for the 2003- 2004 data. This assessment, however, is confounded by a gear effect as mesh size differs between the two sample periods. Based on the results of the study, management recommendations were made to improve the management of the Tugela Bank prawn trawl fishery by reducing bycatch. It was recommended that the observer programme continue for further investigation into the changes in species dynamics. Further research on BRDs (Bycatch Reducing Devices) and gear types that reduce bycatch is also recommended. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2006

Louisianas coastal estuaries are dynamic, highly variable environments that provide nursery areas for numerous recreationally and commercially important species. Louisianas coastline is constantly changing due to natural and anthropogenic processes, and it is important to know how nektonic species are impacted by such changes. This study sought to assess the effects of introducing a hard substrate artificial reef on the nekton community of a Louisiana estuary. A before-after-control-impact (BACI) design was used to assess the impacts of artificial reef addition on nektonic fishes and crustaceans in four shallow marsh ponds near Empire, Louisiana. Marsh ponds were sampled by purse seine and fyke nets every other month from May 2009 to November 2010. Five sites within each pond, four consisting of soft-bottom habitat and one of marsh edge habitat, were sampled. Midway through the study period (March 2010), 110 tons of limestone cobble were distributed across two soft-bottom sites in two of the ponds to mimic oyster reefs. Over 113,000 individuals comprising 57 species were collected. A combination of statistical analyses, including ANOVA, PERMANOVA, and ANOSIM, were used on a variety of nekton community parameters, including species richness, diversity, nekton density, and community structure, to determine the impacts of artificial reef addition on the nekton community. Individual species shown to contribute to changes at impacted areas were also examined. Overall, the addition of artificial reefs had no significant effect on the nekton community as a whole. Select life-stages of estuarine nekton may be positively or negatively affected by reef presence depending on ontogenetic shifts in prey and habitat selection of each species. Once colonized and evolved into functioning oyster reefs, I believe in the absence of natural oyster reefs that the artificial reefs constructed in this study can act as quality nekton habitat. Longer study periods as well as further information on the movement behavior and habitat utilization of individual estuarine species may help elucidate the relationship between estuarine nekton and the habitats they occupy.

This thesis argues the case of community involvement in coastal management in New Zealand. It takes as its starting point objective six of the New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (2010). Which it is suggested, frames the issue on community involvement in specific but rather limited ways. The thesis examines the potential for community-based management in two contrasting places, namely Kaikoura and Waiheke Island. Not only are these within different Regional Council jurisdictions, but they also have different community profiles. Kaikoura is a small rural town with a strong Maori presence in coastal management. Waiheke Island is a more mono-cultural, but rapidly growing island well within wider metropolitan Auckland. Using three research questions the thesis explores existing methods of community-based management in these two places and considers the extent to which these are effective and might also give insight into how objective six could be more appropriately constructed in order to mobilise voices from our beaches.

Habitat quality of natural and artificial reefs for red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico (Gulf) is important as this area is home to the majority of the Gulfs artificial reef system, in the form of oil and gas platforms, in addition to the largest extent of high vertical relief natural habitat. This study sought to assess habitat quality of natural reefs of varying habitat complexity and an artificial reef complex located on the LA continental shelf. Habitat quality was assessed by comparing red snapper diets and foraging patterns, and nutritional condition using the liver-somatic index (LSI) and caloric densities. The diets at the natural reefs consisted of primarily fish, while the diets at the artificial reefs consisted of primarily fish and zooplankton. Size class was not an important factor for the diets at the natural reefs, but the diet varied between size classes at the artificial reefs. The natural reefs were found to offer a wider diversity of prey items, and reef-dependent species were found only in the diets at the natural reefs. Differences between diets at the natural and artificial reefs reflected differences between the substrates found at each habitat. Red snapper at the natural reefs were found to feed on and above the reef, while feeding at the artificial reefs was predominantly along the surrounding seafloor and water column. Site-specific temporal patterns in both the LSI and caloric density were evident. The LSI of females at the natural reefs was greater than the LSI of females at the artificial reefs. While caloric density statistically differed between habitats and sizes, the differences between values may not be biologically significant. Female red snapper at the natural reefs appear to be in a better nutritional condition than females at the artificial reefs. Results of this study indicate that natural reefs on the LA continental shelf provide high habitat quality for red snapper. To maximize reproductive output, the better-quality foraging and nutritional condition of red snapper at the natural reefs should be taken into account when evaluating potential areas for the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary status.