abstract: Mindfulness meditation practices have become an intervention of focus in the literature, but little attention has been drawn to the effectiveness of this practice as a single execution in an online format. Several approaches were employed to capture the effects of a mindful breathing exercise and yoga experience on working memory capacity. Through several analyses, they found that though there was no significant difference between working memory capacity scores before and after this breathing exercise, and mindfulness and yoga experience had no influence on working memory performance. Although these findings were not statistically significant, there are several trends to note and implications for this research within the body of literature. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Human Systems Engineering 2020

It was hypothesized that the early part of mathematical problem solving, specifically the processes of model integration and analogical mapping, tap spatial abilities. Testing the hypothesis, this study explored the potential for spatial reasoning in both the early and late processes of problem solving. An interference paradigm that employed memory for spatial dot patterns and number sequences demonstrated that the early part of solving a math problem requires more spatial resources than the late portion. Additional data from two spatial tasks offered insight into the specific forms of spatial reasoning that may support mathematical performance.

Memory conjunction error is a common phenomenon that occurs when we incorrectly combine parts of previously experienced memories to create an entirely new memory. For example, such an error has occurred when a person remembers seeing the word toothache after viewing the words toothpick and earache instead. Two theories have been proposed in the literature to account for the mechanisms underlying such errors. In one account, memory conjunction errors occur because features stored in episodic memory are incorrectly conjoined. In another account, memory conjunction errors occur simply because conjunction lures seems familiar. In an attempt to distinguish the two theories, the current research focuses on the differences between retrieval mechanisms. Experiment 1 introduces and examines an important factor, the accessibility of episodic features. Experiment 2 further confirms that feature accessibility plays an important role in the occurrence of feature errors. Experiment 3 investigates the retrieval dynamics of the two types of episodic features. The current data pose major problems for the binding theory's claim about a feature binding process occurring at retrieval. Taken as a whole, the current data also show that unified events can be represented differently in episodic memory depending on the nature of the associated features.

This work investigated the ways in which the properties of a concept are activated when that concept is accessed. There has been considerable debate about how closely property information is tied to concepts and under what conditions it is available (e.g., Margolis and Lawrence, 1999). If property information is automatically activated, it should be detectable in both frequency estimation and speeded response tasks. According to Barsalou and Ross' automaticity hypothesis (1986, p.117), “…people become sensitive to the frequency of non-presented information through automatic processing of presented items by well-established memory structures.” On this account, if a list of concepts is presented, participants may be sensitive to the frequency of their properties. Therefore, after studying a list of items, participants should be able to estimate the number of items that were “red” or “sweet” without recalling individual items. Naturally, some properties are more important to a concept than others and are more likely to be activated. Sloman, Love, and Ahn (1998) developed a taxonomy of conceptual properties. Using ratings obtained in a variety of tasks, they performed a factor analysis that revealed three factors: centrality, salience, and diagnosticity. In these studies, I manipulated centrality and salience to appraise their relative importance for the activation of properties. Barsalou's (1982) work on context-independent and context-dependent properties asserts that the activation of properties may be automatic or strategic, depending on the property type. In both a frequency estimation task and a sentence-word priming task, I manipulated context to evaluate whether central or salient properties are context-dependent. In the sentence-word priming task, I was also able to assess degrees of context dependency. I found that: (1) people demonstrated frequency sensitivity to both central and salient properties but were more sensitive to central properties; (2) central properties appear to be activated faster than salient properties as indicated by the slopes in the frequency estimation task and reaction times in the sentence-word priming task; (3) the activation of both central and salient properties appear to be context-dependent or situated (Barsalou, 2000), with the activation of central properties being moderately context-dependent and that of salient properties, highly context-dependent.

Three experiments investigated the effect of emotional stimuli on recognition accuracy and response bias for younger and older adults using ROC analysis and Ratcliff's (1978) diffusion model. Theoretically, emotion may enhance memory accuracy either by improving encoding processes or by altering the memory consolidation process. These competing hypotheses were evaluated in a recognition experiment that tested memory both before (immediate testing) and after (20 minute delay) the consolidation process would likely be completed. The emotion-specific consolidation hypothesis was not supported: there was no interaction of emotional-valence with test delay. Because previous research has shown that negatively-valenced items consistently lead to more liberal responding for both older and younger adults, and inconsistently affect memory accuracy (Kapucu, Rotello, Ready, & Seidl, 2008), confidence ratings and reaction time data were assessed. These data were modeled with signal-detection and diffusion approaches that allow independent measurement of memory accuracy and response bias effects. Although the two methods did not converge for all subjects, in general negative words led to large shifts in response bias and increased recognition accuracy for both younger and older adults.

A new cognitive theory of innovation, the Obscure Features Hypothesis (OFH), states that many innovative solutions result from two steps: (1) noticing a rarely noticed or never-before noticed (i.e., obscure) feature of the problem's elements, and (2) then building a solution based on that obscure feature. The OFH deepens the analysis of the previous theories of innovation and opens up a systematic research program of uncovering aspects of the human semantic, perceptual, and motor systems that inhibit the noticing of obscure features and the derivation of counteracting techniques to unearth obscure features that have a high probability of being useful in problem solving. Specifically, in this study we derive a technique called the Generic Parts Technique (GPT) designed to unearth the types of obscure physical features that can counteract functional fixedness (Duncker, 1945) in insight problems involving concrete objects. Subjects trained in the GPT solved on average 33% more problems more than a control group, which has a very large standardized effect size, a Cohen's d of 1.6. Further, in a subsequent feature-listing task with concrete objects, the GPT subjects listed more obscure physical features. These results support the OFH in that obscure features seem to be one key to solving concrete object insight problems and techniques such as the GPT that are designed to unearth obscure features improve performance on these types of problems.

Previous studies have found interactions between the meaning of a word and the spatial position of the word (Barsalou, 2008; Zwaan and Yaxley, 2003). Some studies find that words or sentences with a directional component facilitate detection toward the congruent spatial direction (e.g., Šetić & Domijan, 2007; Dils & Boroditsky, 2007; Dils & Boroditsky, 2010; Pecher et al; 2010). For instance, the word "jump" would cue toward the top of a screen. Other studies find the opposite effect, where words with implicit spatial meaning show an interference effect (e.g., Bergen et al, 2007; Estes et al, 2008; Dils & Boroditsky, 2010). In these cases the word "jump" would result in faster reaction times to stimuli in the bottom of the screen. This experiment attempts to answer this controversy by looking at temporal effects. These differences might be due to inhibition of return (Posner & Cohen, 1984). If that is the case, you would expect to see a timeline where there is a facilitation effect followed by interference. Results of the study show no effect of time, however there were strong item effects. Most sentences consistently showed either a facilitation or inhabitation effect across all times. This suggests that these effects are modulated by the items that are used. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester 2015. / July 16, 2015. / Language, Spatial / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Kaschak, Professor Directing Thesis; Walter Boot, Committee Member; Arielle Borovsky, Committee Member.

Engaging in a period of rest following encoding has been shown to lead to better retention on a subsequent recall test than performing an inter-test task. Brain imaging studies have shown that there is reactivation during post-encoding rest of brain areas that were active during initial encoding, and this process has been attributed to memory consolidation, leading to the improvements in recall. The present study investigated the conscious thoughts that occur during wakeful rest following encoding and how they relate to memory on a delayed recall test. Recall was tested in younger adults across two tests separated by a rest period while verbalizing conscious thoughts or engaging in a visuospatial task while verbalizing thoughts. Experiment 1 demonstrated hypermnesia, an increase in recall over repeated testing, for the rest but not task condition and demonstrated a relationship between recall improvement and the amount of replay during the delay. Experiment 2 aimed to replicate the findings of Experiment 1 and further explored the role of conscious replay in relational processing. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester 2015. / May 13, 2015. / conscious replay, consolidation, memory, relational processing, verbal protocols / Includes bibliographical references. / Colleen M. Kelley, Professor Directing Thesis; Arielle Ann Borovsky, Committee Member; Walter R. Boot, Committee Member.

Abstract Superior decision-making in chess is thought to rely on a combination of knowledge and search. Research has focused primarily on the chess knowledge base reflected by the importance to chess research of the short-term memory recall paradigm. The direct relevance of research on short-term recall of chess position to the domain-specific knowledge that mediates superior move selection, is based on two theoretical assumptions that have not yet been fully tested. The first assumption is that the chess knowledge base is automatically activated during the perception of a position in a similar manner for move-selection and memory tasks. The second assumption is that the knowledge that underlies move-selection can be adequately represented in a few seconds by a memory task. Study 1 will estimate the length of the presentation time required to demonstrate superior move selection for skilled chess players. The second study will examine the link between the knowledge structures thought to underlie chess skill (chunks identified in memory tests) and quality of move selection. Study 2 will present a series of chess positions with two different instructions. In the first condition participants will be instructed to recall as much of the presented position a possible and in the second condition they will be asked to select the best move followed by recall. This study will test for significant differences in the activated chess knowledge in the two conditions and propose a theoretical model for expert move selection based on knowledge and search / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2016. / March 22, 2016. / expertise, memory, mental representations, skill / Includes bibliographical references. / K. Anders Ericsson, Professor Directing Dissertation; Martin Fennema, University Representative; Neil Charness, Committee Member; Richard K. Wagner, Committee Member; Frank Johnson, Committee Member.

Previous research has shown that holding, or placing one’s hands near, an object can alter visual processing of that object in a variety of ways, including enhancing the detection of change, reducing the effect of distraction, and boosting sensitivity to low-spatial frequency information. These studies have mostly used abstract laboratory cuing and search paradigms to demonstrate a near-hands advantage. In the current study we explored whether enhanced visual analysis in the space near one’s hands confers an advantage when applied to a real-world visual search task. We asked participants to search for knives in X-ray images of luggage (a TSA baggage screening task). Stimuli were presented on a tablet computer. In one experiment participants performed the task by pressing response boxes at the edge of the screen, which forced them to grip the display within their hands. Alternatively, they responded with button press on a mouse held within their lap. There was no effect of hand placement on speed or accuracy. In a second experiment, participants were asked to use their finger to trace along the image of the bag to ensure that all potential target locations were inspected. In addition to any effect of hand proximity to the target, it was anticipated that this strategy would encourage a more systematic search strategy, potentially improving accuracy. Participants inspected bags substantially longer when using this strategy (1,238 ms longer for target present trials, 2,590 ms for target absent trials). Interestingly, this additional time spent viewing the image did not result in improved accuracy. While basic research suggests that hand proximity can influence visual processing, these benefits may not scale-up to more complex search situations. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester 2015. / July 13, 2015. / Embodied Cognition, hand position, Near-Hands effect, Target detection, Vision, Visual Search / Includes bibliographical references. / Walter R. Boot, Professor Directing Thesis; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Arielle Borovsky, Committee Member.