Engaging in a period of rest following encoding has been shown to lead to better retention on a subsequent recall test than performing an inter-test task. Brain imaging studies have shown that there is reactivation during post-encoding rest of brain areas that were active during initial encoding, and this process has been attributed to memory consolidation, leading to the improvements in recall. The present study investigated the conscious thoughts that occur during wakeful rest following encoding and how they relate to memory on a delayed recall test. Recall was tested in younger adults across two tests separated by a rest period while verbalizing conscious thoughts or engaging in a visuospatial task while verbalizing thoughts. Experiment 1 demonstrated hypermnesia, an increase in recall over repeated testing, for the rest but not task condition and demonstrated a relationship between recall improvement and the amount of replay during the delay. Experiment 2 aimed to replicate the findings of Experiment 1 and further explored the role of conscious replay in relational processing. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester 2015. / May 13, 2015. / conscious replay, consolidation, memory, relational processing, verbal protocols / Includes bibliographical references. / Colleen M. Kelley, Professor Directing Thesis; Arielle Ann Borovsky, Committee Member; Walter R. Boot, Committee Member.

Abstract Superior decision-making in chess is thought to rely on a combination of knowledge and search. Research has focused primarily on the chess knowledge base reflected by the importance to chess research of the short-term memory recall paradigm. The direct relevance of research on short-term recall of chess position to the domain-specific knowledge that mediates superior move selection, is based on two theoretical assumptions that have not yet been fully tested. The first assumption is that the chess knowledge base is automatically activated during the perception of a position in a similar manner for move-selection and memory tasks. The second assumption is that the knowledge that underlies move-selection can be adequately represented in a few seconds by a memory task. Study 1 will estimate the length of the presentation time required to demonstrate superior move selection for skilled chess players. The second study will examine the link between the knowledge structures thought to underlie chess skill (chunks identified in memory tests) and quality of move selection. Study 2 will present a series of chess positions with two different instructions. In the first condition participants will be instructed to recall as much of the presented position a possible and in the second condition they will be asked to select the best move followed by recall. This study will test for significant differences in the activated chess knowledge in the two conditions and propose a theoretical model for expert move selection based on knowledge and search / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2016. / March 22, 2016. / expertise, memory, mental representations, skill / Includes bibliographical references. / K. Anders Ericsson, Professor Directing Dissertation; Martin Fennema, University Representative; Neil Charness, Committee Member; Richard K. Wagner, Committee Member; Frank Johnson, Committee Member.

Previous research has shown that holding, or placing one’s hands near, an object can alter visual processing of that object in a variety of ways, including enhancing the detection of change, reducing the effect of distraction, and boosting sensitivity to low-spatial frequency information. These studies have mostly used abstract laboratory cuing and search paradigms to demonstrate a near-hands advantage. In the current study we explored whether enhanced visual analysis in the space near one’s hands confers an advantage when applied to a real-world visual search task. We asked participants to search for knives in X-ray images of luggage (a TSA baggage screening task). Stimuli were presented on a tablet computer. In one experiment participants performed the task by pressing response boxes at the edge of the screen, which forced them to grip the display within their hands. Alternatively, they responded with button press on a mouse held within their lap. There was no effect of hand placement on speed or accuracy. In a second experiment, participants were asked to use their finger to trace along the image of the bag to ensure that all potential target locations were inspected. In addition to any effect of hand proximity to the target, it was anticipated that this strategy would encourage a more systematic search strategy, potentially improving accuracy. Participants inspected bags substantially longer when using this strategy (1,238 ms longer for target present trials, 2,590 ms for target absent trials). Interestingly, this additional time spent viewing the image did not result in improved accuracy. While basic research suggests that hand proximity can influence visual processing, these benefits may not scale-up to more complex search situations. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester 2015. / July 13, 2015. / Embodied Cognition, hand position, Near-Hands effect, Target detection, Vision, Visual Search / Includes bibliographical references. / Walter R. Boot, Professor Directing Thesis; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Arielle Borovsky, Committee Member.

Interference between similar events is known to be a major mechanism of forgetting. As such, it is important for us to understand how to reduce interference effects. While early research suggested that differentiation of the two sources of information was vital for preventing interference, more recent research has found that being reminded of similar material and making associations can be most beneficial. In the present thesis I put these two mechanisms in opposition, utilizing a two list A-B, A-D paradigm. Experiment 1 revealed little difference in memory for interfering word pairs between participants in a “reminding” condition asked to make associations vs. a “differentiation” condition asked to differentiate and forget old pairs while studying new pairs. Experiment 2a revealed an interaction, such that those told to make associations showed less interference than those told to forget the first list, while both conditions performed similarly on control pairs. However, Experiment 2b failed to replicate Experiment 2a. In Experiment 3 I sought to increase the degree of differentiation between lists by varying encoding. Using different encoding between lists resulted in equivalent interference in both the reminding and differentiation conditions. Experiment 4 varied encoding instructions to contrast the differentiation present in Experiment 3 against circumstances encouraging associations. One group used the same encoding method for both lists, while another was given different study methods between lists. Results reveal a unique discovery about the important interplay of encoding and study time in determining the likelihood of reminding. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester 2016. / July 7, 2016. / Differentiation, Encoding, Instructions, Interference, Reminding / Includes bibliographical references. / Colleen Kelley, Professor Directing Thesis; Michael Kaschak, Committee Member; Arielle Borovsky, Committee Member.

Drawing from the decision-making literature, the framing and cross-modal discounting paradigms were used to investigate the effect of age on the subjective valuation of technology. Using the framing paradigm to covertly measure age differences in relative subjective valuation, it was hypothesized that older adults would undervalue technology relative to younger adults and when compared to non-technology-related rewards. Through the use of the cross-modal discounting paradigm, it was also hypothesized that older adults would display a larger perceived attribute difference between technology and non-technology-related rewards when compared to younger adults. Three experiments were conducted utilizing both online and in-lab samples. Analysis of the framing items revealed few age differences in risky choice preferences across the scenario modalities. Gift cards for technology or non-technology-related items were not found to be subjectively valued differently between age groups, or differently from unallocated money within age groups. Analysis of the cross-modal discounting items revealed a subset of individuals, evenly distributed across age groups, which perceived a large attribute difference between the gift cards, showing a preference for the non-technology-related reward. These outwardly contradictory results and implications for older adults and technology adoption are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2016. / April 28, 2016. / Aging, Decision-making, Technology Acceptance / Includes bibliographical references. / Neil Charness, Professor Directing Dissertation; R. Mark Isaac, University Representative; Walter Boot, Committee Member; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Natalie Sachs-Ericsson, Committee Member.

Alpha oscillations (8-12 Hz) have been implicated in sensory processing and the inhibition/filtering of irrelevant sensory input. Meanwhile, aberrations in sensory filtering have been associated with a number of conditions, including anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The latter can be characterized by pathologically diminished levels of alpha power and posterior→frontal alpha connectivity, but the role of alpha oscillations in other anxiety disorders remains to be elucidated. In this experiment we set out to test the effect of both anxiety and alpha activity on sensory processing in the auditory modality, as well as investigate the potential relationship between these two variables. We manipulated anxiety via a 5 minute anxiety induction and attempted to manipulate (increase) alpha power and posterior→frontal alpha connectivity via 20 minutes of transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS). The anxiety induction led to increases in anxiety, and resulted in a general increase in rated intensity and a corresponding decrease in rated pleasantness of sounds. This effect further interacted with the intensity and valence of the auditory stimuli. No changes in alpha power or posterior→frontal alpha connectivity were observed as a result of the anxiety induction. The tACS treatment failed to result in significant increases in alpha power and posterior→frontal alpha connectivity, and did not lead to significant changes in mood. However, posterior→frontal alpha connectivity significantly decreased in the sham condition, while no such decrease was observed in the tACS group. In addition, it was found that rated pleasantness of quiet sounds decreased in the sham condition but not in the tACS condition following treatment, potentially hinting at a buffering effect of tACS. In conclusion, we were able to demonstrate a link between anxiety and sensory processing in the auditory modality, while the relationship between alpha activity and anxiety (if one exists) remains uncertain. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / 2019 / August 21, 2019. / Includes bibliographical references. / Wen Li, Professor Directing Thesis; Walter Boot, Committee Member; Aaron Wilber, Committee Member.

Emotional clarity (EC) refers to the ability to identify, understand, and distinguish one’s emotions (Gohm & Clore, 2000). The literature suggests that EC is highly related to emotion regulation (ER), such that individuals with higher EC are more likely to use adaptive ER strategies and individuals with lower EC are more likely to use maladaptive ER strategies (Vine & Aldao, 2014). EC has been measured with both self-report measures and physiological tasks. Due to the limitations of both self-report measures and physiological tasks, I aimed to develop a behavioral measure of EC using the concordance between change in individuals’ physiological responding and change in their subjective emotional states before and during a stressor task. In part one of the study, I created a behavioral measure and compared it to individuals’ self-reported emotional clarity. In part two, I examined the concurrent validity of the behavioral EC measure by assessing its relationships with maladaptive ER, adaptive ER, and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI, a maladaptive ER strategy). Participants were 127 (90% female, Mage = 19.51, SDage = 1.31) young adults. Participants completed questionnaires of self-reported emotional clarity and ER strategies. Then, participants completed a modified Trier Social Stress Test in the laboratory (TSST; Waugh, Panage, Mendes, & Gotlib, 2010). Heartbeat was measured throughout and self-rated negative affect was measured before and after stress. Results indicated that behavioral EC was not associated with self-reported EC (r = .14, p = .178). Furthermore, structural equation modeling results indicated that behavioral EC did not predict maladaptive ER (β = .18, p = .733), adaptive ER (β = .61, p = .497), or NSSI (β = .40, p = .618). Examinations of the relations between study variables suggested that self-reported EC may have been a more accurate measure of EC in the current sample. Limitations of the current study may have impacted the ability for the behavioral measure to properly capture the construct of EC. Future research is needed to more fully understand whether a behavioral measure of EC is feasible.

abstract: Maintaining upright balance and postural control is a task that most individuals perform everyday with ease and without much thought. Although it may be a relatively easy task to perform, research has shown that changes in cognitive (or “attentional”) processes are reflected in the movements of sway. The purpose of this dissertation is to understand the relationship between attention and posture when attention is directly or indirectly shifted away from posture. Using a dual-task paradigm, attention was shifted directly by instructing participants to prioritize the balance task (minimize sway in a unipedal stance) or prioritize the cognitive task (minimize errors in an auditory n-back task) and indirectly by changing the difficulty level of the cognitive task (0-back vs. 2-back task). Postural sway was assessed using sample entropy (SampEn), standard deviation, (SD) and sway path (SP) of trunk movements to measure the regularity, variability, and overall distance of sway travelled, respectively. Dual-task behavior was examined when participants were in a controlled (i.e., non-fatigued) state (Experiment 1), in a state of physical fatigue (Experiment 2), and in a state of mental fatigue (Experiment 3). Across all three experiments, indirectly shifting attention away from posture in the more difficult 2-back task induced less regularity (higher SampEn) and variability (smaller SD) in postural sway. Directly shifting attention away from posture, by prioritizing the cognitive task, induced less regularity (higher SampEn) and a longer path length (higher SP) in Experiment 1, however this effect was not significant for the fatigued participants in Experiments 2 and 3. Neither physical fatigue (Experiment 2) or mental fatigue (Experiment 3) negatively affected postural sway or cognitive performance. Overall, the findings from this dissertation contribute to the relationship between movement regularity and attention in posture, and that the postural behavior that emerges is sensitive to methods in which attention is manipulated (direct, indirect) and fatigue (physical, mental). / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Psychology 2019

The current thesis compared the effectiveness of the direct (blocking memory) and substitution (thinking of something else) memory suppression strategies using the Think/No-Think (TNT) task. Eighty participants completed a TNT task using either the direct or substitution strategy during every occurrence of 12 repetitions for no-think word-pairs. Memory intrusions were reported by participants after each trial and their memory for both the think and no-think words were tested after all TNT trials were completed. A significant memory suppression effect was obtained for memory intrusions but not for either of the two memory tests (same-probe test, independent-probe test). The memory suppression effect also increased for memory intrusions reported by participants as the number of no-think repetitions increased across trials. The memory strategy used by participants did not affect memory suppression (self-reported intrusions or memory test), suggesting that the two memory strategies are equally as effective for suppressing memories. However, future research is needed to support this conclusion, as maintaining strategy compliance throughout a cognitively demanding Think/No-Think experiment was challenging for many of our participants. A failure to replicate a memory suppression effect for either of the memory tests also makes this conclusion more difficult to accept on the basis of the data collected in the current thesis.

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