Inaug.-Diss.--Jena. / Lebenslauf.

Thesis--Belgrad. / Summary in French. Bibliography: p. 253-258.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Adelaide, 1989. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 598-620).

Thesis (doctoral)--Göteborg University. / Thesis t.p. inserted. Includes bibliographical references (p. 158-170).

Thesis (doctoral)--Göteborg University. / Thesis t. p. inserted. Includes bibliographical references (p. 158-170).

Communal land values can, on the one hand, be an integral part of the socio-cultural experience which tourists seek and enjoy while visiting Fiji. Partly inherited from the land, such values are still vital as basis of survival in rural Fiji. They are passive so they do not command a price and therefore largely considered free however, indigenous Fijian landowners tend to perceive that such values are an inseparable part of their land and may often expect that these ought to be paid for when land is taken up for development such as in tourism. This dilemma within the tourism system could underpin land conflicts between traditional landowners and tourism entrepreneurs. As tourists ultimately bear costs, the problem can be partially addressed by focusing on their willingness to pay for communal use of land. This research assesses the backpackers� willingness to pay (WTP) for communal values of land in Fiji, including their opinions, feelings, attitudes and perceptions. It uses a social, psychological-economic theoretical framework which postulates firstly, that backpackers will pay in order to maximise satisfaction and, that utilities from passive values can be derived and measured. Secondly, as backpackers search for authenticity, adventure and meeting local people they would tend to be self actualised and therefore willing to pay. A contingent valuation study was undertaken in Fiji from February to June 2003 with a relatively high participation and response rate. Semi-structured interviews were conducted from February to March, 2005 to elicit backpackers� knowledge, feelings, perceptions and attitudes regarding their willingness to pay for the communal use of land. A great majority of respondents were willing to pay. CV respondents were willing to pay an average of F$6.50 for the communal value of land but the younger, highly educated and long haulers would pay less. Though a high proportion of respondents were willing to pay because they valued the communal use of land, for the majority the main reason was financial. Interviewees were willing to pay for economic, psychological and egocentric reasons. The latter two were particularly based on their motivational satisfaction and understanding of the traditional land-based survival skills. Respondents� perceptions of communal values of land, incomes and psychological attitude were also major factors underlying why they were not willing to pay. In light of the study�s findings, it was suggested that the backpacker concept may need to be re-examined as they tended not to be necessarily as budget-minded and exploitative as generally depicted to be. Similarly, they tended to be self-actualising and also espousing motivations similar to those of mass tourists. It was also proposed that WTP can provide a basis for economically analysing the use of passive values of environmental tourism resources, such as land, which can facilitate the industry�s ability in decision making, and management. As an incentive, WTP for communal values of land can be crucial in enhancing and sustaining tourism in a land-scarce economy such as Fiji. In the interim, WTP for communal land use could also provide informed decisions to address current issues such as the Customary Fisheries Bill. Indeed, this pioneering study examines the very issues of passive values for traditionally owned resources which can be applied more broadly; not only in Fiji, but also in other parts of the Pacific.

The governance of the commons is an elusive task. For one thing, the overexploitation of natural resources and the deterioration of environment have posed severe threats to human society. For another, most of the threats result from social dilemmas such as problems of cooperation, coordination and trust. These collective action problems all entail |a| paradox in which rational individual behavior leads to irrational collective outcomes. In previous literature, answers for coping with “the tragedy of the commons” range from the imposition of government to the establishment of market and endogenous rules. However, this institutional perspective has overlooked the social and ecological characteristics embedded in common-pool resources(CPR) systems. Furthermore, few studies have taken a formal game theoretic approach to examine how embeddedness might affect collective action problems in complex social-ecological systems. This thesis uses formal game theoretic models to investigate the dynamics of collective action problems in water sharing interactions. Three types of innovative game theoretic models are developed; namely, the asymmetric N-person Prisoner’s Dilemma game, the asymmetric N-person Stag-hunt game and the two-level Trust game. Various elements of social and ecological embeddedness, including but not limited to direct and indirect reciprocity, heterogeneous utilities, varied utility functions for public good production and multi-level interactions, are incorporated into models to examine conditions under which collective action problems are more likely to be alleviated. Moreover, this study associates implications of the formal models with practice of water governance in contemporary China and provides insights into the strengths and weaknesses of several empirical cases including decision-making processes, water allocation schemes, payments for ecosystem services programs and multi-level governance. Major findings of this study are: 1) Collective cooperation between different upstream and downstream actors is subject to joint effects of reciprocity and asymmetric payoff mechanisms. Downstream actors require a strong prospect of long-term interactions whereas upstream actors are more sensitive to the level asymmetries. 2) The problem of coordination can be addressed through settings of asymmetric cost-benefit ratios and varied total utility functions. Actors’ heterogeneous contribution to public good may alter the number of cooperators and the production of public good. 3) The imposition of an overarching authority can be a “double-edged sword” in terms of its impacts on trust construction. A trustworthy authority may relax conditions for placing and honoring trust. The conditions become more restrictive when the authority is untrustworthy. 4) Information transparency and availability, “the shadow of the future,” regional heterogeneities, institutional fit and trustworthiness of overarching authorities are critical factors that affect the performance of water governance in China. This study contributes to the existing literature in three main aspects. Firstly, it introduces the effects of embeddedness into CPR studies which conventionally focus on the institutional aspect of CPR governance. Secondly, it brings the perspective of collective action into water resources management studies which traditionally concentrate on hydrological processes and policies designs. Lastly, it enriches formal game theoretic modeling by including various social-ecological characteristics which play a significant role in water sharing interactions and yet have not been adequately examined. / published_or_final_version / Geography / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Graduate

This study investigated the livelihood strategies of mountain communities and their relationships with natural resources in northern Pakistan. Interventions by the State to conserve biodiversity have led to the “decommonisation” of the commons and with strict sanctions on the local communities restricting their access to the resources. This has resulted in severe conflicts between the State and the local communities. In light of the adverse effects of “decommonisation,” prevailing institutions, international conservation organizations, have initiated the “re-coupling” of the local communities with resource management. However, this process of “new-commonisation” appears to be failing because it has not provided “a sense of ownership” among the local communities. To investigate the pertinent issues, this research encompassed five areas for analysis: 1) the dynamics of mountain livelihoods; 2) the vulnerability and coping strategies of mountain communities; 3) the “decommonisation” of mountain commons; 4) international NGO-led “new commonisation” of natural resource endowments, with efforts to involve local communities; and 5) the formulation of a framework towards sustainable mountain livelihoods. The study collected evidence from two communities in northern Pakistan, namely, Shimshal and Naltar Valley, during July 2006-September 2008. A four-tier field method was used that included introductory workshops, household surveys, focus group discussions, and data validation. This investigation identified the following findings: 1) there has been a significant reduction in the livelihood options of local communities due to State-induced “Protected Areas,” 2) traditional pasture management systems have been facing serious threats from State institutional measures; 3) some communities have proactively attempted to diversify their economy by expanding household portfolios into non-agricultural sectors; 4) external drivers of local socio-economic conditions have augmented local vulnerability; 5) in the face of external threats, some traditional institutions have transformed themselves into formalized institutions with the capability to establish cross-scale linkages. There is a potential to manage the commons through revitalized local institutions that would promote “self-governance” in managing the commons. It stresses the need to understand the local livelihoods from the perspective of the local people, so as to advance effectively the conservation of natural resources in the context of mountain areas.

This study investigated the livelihood strategies of mountain communities and their relationships with natural resources in northern Pakistan. Interventions by the State to conserve biodiversity have led to the “decommonisation” of the commons and with strict sanctions on the local communities restricting their access to the resources. This has resulted in severe conflicts between the State and the local communities. In light of the adverse effects of “decommonisation,” prevailing institutions, international conservation organizations, have initiated the “re-coupling” of the local communities with resource management. However, this process of “new-commonisation” appears to be failing because it has not provided “a sense of ownership” among the local communities. To investigate the pertinent issues, this research encompassed five areas for analysis: 1) the dynamics of mountain livelihoods; 2) the vulnerability and coping strategies of mountain communities; 3) the “decommonisation” of mountain commons; 4) international NGO-led “new commonisation” of natural resource endowments, with efforts to involve local communities; and 5) the formulation of a framework towards sustainable mountain livelihoods. The study collected evidence from two communities in northern Pakistan, namely, Shimshal and Naltar Valley, during July 2006-September 2008. A four-tier field method was used that included introductory workshops, household surveys, focus group discussions, and data validation. This investigation identified the following findings: 1) there has been a significant reduction in the livelihood options of local communities due to State-induced “Protected Areas,” 2) traditional pasture management systems have been facing serious threats from State institutional measures; 3) some communities have proactively attempted to diversify their economy by expanding household portfolios into non-agricultural sectors; 4) external drivers of local socio-economic conditions have augmented local vulnerability; 5) in the face of external threats, some traditional institutions have transformed themselves into formalized institutions with the capability to establish cross-scale linkages. There is a potential to manage the commons through revitalized local institutions that would promote “self-governance” in managing the commons. It stresses the need to understand the local livelihoods from the perspective of the local people, so as to advance effectively the conservation of natural resources in the context of mountain areas.