This thesis investigates small-scale community-based shrimp aquaculture (CBSA) in northwestern Sri Lanka. The objectives are to explore: (1) community-based shrimp aquaculture; (2) commons institutions and application of commons rules; and (3) policy implications (i.e., as an alternative to large-scale operations in ensuring sustainability). Data were gathered from three communities in northwestern Sri Lanka, through participant observations; semi-structured interviews; focus group discussions; and key informant interviews. Presence of small-scale community-based institutions is evident. Arguably, commons in this context are social-ecological systems, including the interconnected natural water body. Main characteristics of the existing resource governance system are multi-level commons institutional structure; zonal crop calendar system; collaborative/participatory management approach; and better management practices. A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis proves the viability of existing CBSA. This thesis recognizes CBSA as an alternative approach to large-scale aquaculture operations to ensure sustainability in the long run.

This thesis investigates small-scale community-based shrimp aquaculture (CBSA) in northwestern Sri Lanka. The objectives are to explore: (1) community-based shrimp aquaculture; (2) commons institutions and application of commons rules; and (3) policy implications (i.e., as an alternative to large-scale operations in ensuring sustainability). Data were gathered from three communities in northwestern Sri Lanka, through participant observations; semi-structured interviews; focus group discussions; and key informant interviews. Presence of small-scale community-based institutions is evident. Arguably, commons in this context are social-ecological systems, including the interconnected natural water body. Main characteristics of the existing resource governance system are multi-level commons institutional structure; zonal crop calendar system; collaborative/participatory management approach; and better management practices. A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis proves the viability of existing CBSA. This thesis recognizes CBSA as an alternative approach to large-scale aquaculture operations to ensure sustainability in the long run.

Severe acute malnutrition (SAM) threatens the lives of millions of children globally. In developing countries, 15% of the population is undernourished; and half of the mortality for children younger than 5 years old is associated to undernutrition (UNICEF, 2008), the most vulnerable population to malnutrition. Overall, Haiti reports 19.2% of children are undernourished, 11.4% are underweight, and 10.3% are wasted (Lutter et al., 2011; DHS, 2005, CWW-proposal, 2007). The treatment for the management of SAM has evolved over the decades (Lancet, 2006). The Community Management of Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) is an evidence-based intervention with proven effectiveness for treating children with SAM (Collins, 2007). The CMAM intervention reduces infant mortality related to SAM (Lancet, 2006, Collins, 2007; WHO, 2001; UNICEF, 2009). The CMAM intervention was validated in 2007 through the United Nations agencies for the management of SAM. Nevertheless, it has had limited reach and poor public health impact in some of the developing countries (e.g.; Haiti) where it was implemented. Concern Worldwide is a non-profit humanitarian organization, which pioneered in the creation of the CMAM intervention. Concern introduced the CMAM interventions in Haiti in October 2007 as a pilot program. The program was implemented in close to 20 health institutions in the metropolitan Port-au-Prince. As is the case with any other public health program, there were many challenges to the CMAM intervention implementation in Haiti. Concern’s CMAM intervention was not sustainable after it retracted the technical support in 2012 (UNICEF-Haiti country report, 2014). The purpose of this paper is to first review the Concern Worldwide CMAM program implementation in five communes of Port-au-Prince. Then, a suggested plan is outlined for the revitalization of the intervention’s activities and long-term sustainability once revitalized.

I address the emergence, governance, and effects of marine reserve efforts in the Gulf of California, Mexico, emphasizing a community-based marine reserve network established by the commercial diving sector of Puerto Peñasco, Sonora. This network emerged as a means to manage benthic resources in rocky reefs, primarily rock scallop (Spondylus calcifer) and black murex snail (Hexaplex nigritus). My study also provides an analysis of growth, reproductive ecology, and management of both species.I show that local cooperation to manage fisheries commons incorporating the use of marine reserves can emerge rapidly. Furthermore, this cooperation can be sustained in a fishery spanning no more than two generations, effectively avoiding a local "tragedy of the commons". A blend of social group characteristics, fishers' ecological knowledge and participation in monitoring, and relatively rapid ecological response of the system can play key roles in reinforcing cooperation.I provide evidence of rapid effects of reserves on adjacent fisheries via larvae dispersal. Visual censuses revealed that density of young rock scallop (individuals recruited since reserve establishment) had increased by up to 40.7% within coastal reserves and by 20.6% in fished sites in only two years. Changes were also evident for black murex, with more than a three-fold increase in the density of juveniles within fished sites. These effects, however, were spatially-constricted, evident only for the northern portion of the reserve network. These empirical findings are more indicative of a reserve effect rather than other confounding factors and are consistent with field oceanography data (release of satellite-tracked drifters) and outputs from larvae dispersal models.Finally, I show that just as cooperation can emerge, it can rapidly fall with cascading effects to the system's resilience, particularly amidst threats to social capital and pressure from outside the community. I conclude that even when community-based reserves are effective within the biophysical and local social context, their long-term efficacy will rely on the system's capacity to control access and will demand the institutional capacity to do so. In Mexico this implies, at the least, the government's formal recognition of community-based initiatives and a means to give viability to these efforts.

In the rural water scheme projects across sub-Saharan Africa, the participatory Community Based Management model has become the norm. Through initial financing by oustide funders, the goal is for communities to independently take on the financing of the operation and maintenance (O&M) of the improved water schemes, thereby ensuring sustainability and functionality of the pumps. Evidence has been gathering, however that this model, combining ideals of collective action with the logics of commodification, has been frequently failing, one in three hand pumps in Africa are out of function, and communities struggle to meet the financing needs of O&M in infrastructures which perpetuate isolation. This, however, does not lie fully in the fault of the communities, or implementation, but also in theoretical downfalls of the CBM. Looking at a community-based rural project in the Tikar region of Central Cameroon as well, this research reveals the limits of CBM to achieving sustainable water access, as well as reveal new angles and paradigms to pursue.

Over the last decade, coral reef remote sensing research has focused on habitat map development. Advances in field methods, spatial and spectral resolution of remote sensing data, and algorithm development have led to more detailed map categories and to heightened map accuracy. Studies have provided guidance for practitioners in areas such as imagery selection, algorithm application, and class selection methods, but the product has remained relatively unchanged – a habitat map showing the spatial distribution of a range of substrate classes, classified primarily on the basis of their spectral signature. However, the application of such a product in a management context has not been elaborated by the remote sensing community. The research described in this thesis addresses the challenge that the application of remotely-sensed coral reef information in a coral reef management environment elicits. In such an environment, the coral reef manager asks: "What can the map do to help me?", while the remote sensing scientist asks: "What type of information do you need?". The research described here aims to reconcile these two points of view, by answering the research question of this thesis: How can coral reef remotely-sensed information address stakeholder-specific coral reef management objectives? This question was answered through the development of a four-stage strategy. The strategy includes: 1) developing a traditional habitat map, 2) investigating stakeholder receptivity to the habitat map, 3) linking stakeholder interests with habitat data, and 4) illustrating the linked habitat data in what we term a management map. The strategy was applied on Bunaken Island, Indonesia, and involved the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data sets. The research was relevant to the communities on Bunaken Island, as they are directly responsible for the management of the coral reef resources surrounding Bunaken Island, and they are regularly planning and implementing coral reef management projects. The effectiveness of the four-stage strategy was evaluated in a framework that compares potential and actual uses of habitat maps and management maps in coral reef management projects. It was shown that management maps are superior to habitat maps for a wide range of management purposes. This research has provided two main contributions to the field of coral reef remote sensing and management. The first is the four-stage strategy that results in the development of management maps, and the second is the framework for evaluating the effectiveness of the management maps. This research seeks to traverse the gap between producers and users of coral reef remotely-sensed information. The recommendations made from this research addresses coral reef management procedures, action research, and cross-cultural communication. Each recommendation is founded on collaboration between scientist and manager. Such collaboration is crucial for successful application of remotely-sensed information to management.

Over the last decade, coral reef remote sensing research has focused on habitat map development. Advances in field methods, spatial and spectral resolution of remote sensing data, and algorithm development have led to more detailed map categories and to heightened map accuracy. Studies have provided guidance for practitioners in areas such as imagery selection, algorithm application, and class selection methods, but the product has remained relatively unchanged – a habitat map showing the spatial distribution of a range of substrate classes, classified primarily on the basis of their spectral signature. However, the application of such a product in a management context has not been elaborated by the remote sensing community. The research described in this thesis addresses the challenge that the application of remotely-sensed coral reef information in a coral reef management environment elicits. In such an environment, the coral reef manager asks: "What can the map do to help me?", while the remote sensing scientist asks: "What type of information do you need?". The research described here aims to reconcile these two points of view, by answering the research question of this thesis: How can coral reef remotely-sensed information address stakeholder-specific coral reef management objectives? This question was answered through the development of a four-stage strategy. The strategy includes: 1) developing a traditional habitat map, 2) investigating stakeholder receptivity to the habitat map, 3) linking stakeholder interests with habitat data, and 4) illustrating the linked habitat data in what we term a management map. The strategy was applied on Bunaken Island, Indonesia, and involved the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data sets. The research was relevant to the communities on Bunaken Island, as they are directly responsible for the management of the coral reef resources surrounding Bunaken Island, and they are regularly planning and implementing coral reef management projects. The effectiveness of the four-stage strategy was evaluated in a framework that compares potential and actual uses of habitat maps and management maps in coral reef management projects. It was shown that management maps are superior to habitat maps for a wide range of management purposes. This research has provided two main contributions to the field of coral reef remote sensing and management. The first is the four-stage strategy that results in the development of management maps, and the second is the framework for evaluating the effectiveness of the management maps. This research seeks to traverse the gap between producers and users of coral reef remotely-sensed information. The recommendations made from this research addresses coral reef management procedures, action research, and cross-cultural communication. Each recommendation is founded on collaboration between scientist and manager. Such collaboration is crucial for successful application of remotely-sensed information to management.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Earth Science) / Sustainability of rural water supply systems is a major development challenge in most developing countries including Zimbabwe. This thesis aimed to analyse the sustainability of communally managed rural water supply systems in Zimbabwe. Specifically, it determined the factors influencing sustainability of water supply systems; investigated how the implementation of Community Based Management (CBM) is contributing to the sustainability of water supply systems; explored how multiple uses of water influence sustainability of water supply systems under CBM and determined how the principal factors influencing sustainability and the CBM implementation practices, can be incorporated at the different stages of the development of a water supply system. The study was done in Nyanga, Chivi and Gwanda districts. A total of 399 communally- managed water points were studied and 300 households participated in the study. Questionnaires were used to collect data from households and Water Point Committees (WPCs). Data was also collected using Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with a total of 33 key informants being drawn from the national, district and community levels.

Human communities across the globe are currently facing an epidemic of lake water quality degradation, primarily resulting from resource and land-use decisions that introduce excessive amounts of nutrients into the lake system. In many of these communities, local volunteer groups called lake associations work to protect these cherished lake resources. Lake associations and similar groups commonly respond to issues that are most prevalent in their respective watersheds including, but not limited to, algae blooms, declines in water transparency, and fish kills. Yet, there is little research on the role these groups actively or potentially play in lake governance and management. This study investigates the specific structures and strategies lake associations use to address lake water quality challenges using a comparative case analysis of two organizations: Lake Sunapee Protective Association (LSPA; Sunapee, NH) and Clean Lakes Alliance (CLA; Madison, WI). I performed a content analysis of self-published newsletters, annual reports, and news publications mentioning either lake association, and supplemented this data with semi-structured interviews of key individuals from each organization. I characterized and compared the missions, capacity, and activity of the two case studies by applying a conceptual framework as a lens through which to better understand the function these groups serve in their communities and what makes them effective. I found that, although the two groups structure themselves differently, take on distinct activity pathways, and orient themselves differently with respect to lake conservation, they have both been effective in achieving decision-making or management outcomes. This is a first step in identifying the diversity of ways community-based conservation organizations, such as lake associations, can meaningfully contribute to collaborative environmental governance processes on the local scale. / Master of Science / Around the world, people who live on lakes are dealing with significant declines in lake water quality. These declines have been linked to various land management decisions, which can introduce excess nutrients to the lake system that promote excessive algal or bacterial growth, and to the ways people choose to use the lake resource, which can introduce non-native, or invasive, plant and animal species. In many lake communities, local volunteer groups called lake associations work to protect their local lake resources. Lake associations can respond to the specific problems facing their lake and act to manage the lake resource and the land around it. Yet, there is little research on the role these groups actively or potentially play in lake management and conservation. This study investigates the specific organizational structures and strategies lake associations and similar groups use to address water quality declines in lake communities. I collected historic documentation and completed oral interviews for two case study associations, Lake Sunapee Protective Association (LSPA; Sunapee, NH) and Clean Lakes Alliance (CLA; Madison, WI), to characterize and compare their missions, organizational capacities, and activities. This analysis allows me to better understand what makes these groups effective and the functions they serve in their communities. I found that, although the two groups are structured differently and implement different strategies to achieve outcomes, they both have been effective in achieving lake management and conservation outcomes in line with their respective missions. This is a first step in identifying the diversity of ways community-based conservation organizations, such as lake associations, can meaningfully contribute to local environmental management and conservation.

<p>Despite 21 years of protection, sideneck river-turtles (<italic>Podocnemis expansa</italic>, <italic>P. unifilis</italic> and <italic>P. vogli</italic>, arrau, terecay and galápago, respectively), an important food resource for riverine communities (<italic>ribereños</italic>) in the Middle Orinoco, have not recovered. To determine the most effective conservation alternative for recovery, we conducted semi-structured interviews of ribereños and determined their attitudes towards turtle conservation; we collected discarded turtle remains in riverine communities to estimate the level of turtle harvest; and constructed a population model to study the effect of reduced survival and future extraction on arrau turtle population growth. We found that ribereños blame continued commercial extraction for the lack of turtle population recovery. Ribereños have a desire to participate actively in conservation and, despite feeling alienated by governmental officials charged with protecting turtles, prefer to be included in conservation efforts. However, ribereños also fear retaliation from turtle poachers. We found widespread turtle harvest along the Middle Orinoco centered on juvenile arrau turtles, and adult female terecay and galápago turtles. In our population model, reducing harvest causes an increase in population growth. A 10% increase in survival causes rapid exponential growth in arrau turtles. The population continues to grow in over 70% of projected scenarios with limited harvest from a recovered stock. Due to the widespread distribution of turtles and their harvest, we recommend increasing ribereño participation in conservation activities, closing outsider (non-ribereño) access to the resource, increasing enforcement against illegal commercial harvest, instating possession limits for subsistence harvest, and promoting localized captive breeding of faster maturing terecay and galápago turtles to satisfy desire for turtle consumption.</p> / Dissertation