Thesis (PhD (Sport Sc) (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / Please refer to full text to view abstract.

Background: Compression garments are elastic, body-tight pieces of clothing with different pressure gradients used as a recovery method after exercise, such as strength training. Compression garments have increased in popularity within recreational and elite athletes as it is believed that they promote a reduction of muscle soreness and inflammation, which in turn may enhance performance. However, the exact physiological, psychological and performance enhancing effects of compression garments after recovery still remain unknown. Aim: To investigate whether female and male recreational athletes wearing full leg customised compression garments for at least 15 hours following a personalised strength training workout leads to an improvement in anaerobic sprint cycling performance as well as a reduction of perceived muscle soreness. Additionally a sleep quality assessment was conducted to assess the effects of the garments during sleep. Methods: Thirteen male and female subjects took part of a cross-over, randomised, controlled study. Subjects performed the first set of tests including Wingate anaerobic sprint test followed by their personalised strength training workout, after which they recovered with Compression Garments (CGS) or without compression garments (CON). They then returned 24hrs later to perform the second set of tests. Ten days later the same procedure was conducted however the other recovery method was used. Results: No significantdifferences were found between CGS and CON for the Wingate anaerobic test performance. Perceived muscle soreness was lower when subjects wore the garments and they felt better recovered 24hrs post-intervention compared to the CON condition. Some aspects of sleep were affected by wearing the compression garments during sleep however it was unclear whether this had an impact on performance. Conclusion: Recovering with customised full leg compression garments did not promote an improvement of physiological power performance 24 hours after a personalised strength training workout session. However perceived muscle soreness was reduced and the perception of recovery improved. The compression garments caused some sleep disturbances as subjects rated that they were too warm, suggesting a possible drawback of recovering with garments if worn during sleep.

Various models of simulated weightlessness and resulting cardiovascular effects have been researched in the last 50 years of space exploration. Examples of such models are the Alter-G (Alt-G) treadmill used for body unweighting and head-up-tilt (HUT) model each providing similar cardiovascular effects, but differing in their stimulation of vestibular centers . Advantages of using the Alt-G include: use of lower body positive pressure (LBPP) to simulate hypogravity, it acts as a countermeasure to alleviate negative cardiovascular effects of standing and provides a constant vestibular stimulus. In addition, the Alt-G shorts themselves may be providing a certain degree of LBPP, acting as a compression garment. Therefore the purpose of this study was to determine the cardiovascular effects of Alt-G shorts and how effective they are as countermeasure to deconditioning effects of space flight. This study tested cardiovascular changes in 12 men and women at 0 and 80 degrees head-up-tilt (HUT0 / HUT80) with and without Alt-G shorts using 5-lead ECG, 10-lead impedance, heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements at finger and arm. The tilt-induced increase in mean heart rate (HR) was significantly smaller when subjects wore the Alt-G shorts. Shorts ended up reducing HR by 2.3 bpm in supine control and by 6.7 bpm at HUT80 (p0.05. Other cardiovascular variables did not show any significant effect from shorts. In conclusion, this study was in line with results from other studies that used compression garments to determine cardiovascular effects of LBPP.

Thesis (MSpor)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Various types of post-exercise recovery strategies have become part of the modern athlete’s daily routine. It is a well known that inadequate recovery will prolong the time it takes for the runner’s body to adequately adapt between training sessions and competitions. Anecdotal claims have been made about compression garments as a beneficial method to assist recovery after training sessions and competitions. Until now limited scientific research has addressed the influence that compression garments have on the recovery process after sporting activities. The benefits of compression garments, as a possible recovery modality, are that it is costeffective, practical and easily obtainable. This study endeavored to investigate the possible influence that compression garments may have on middle-aged long distance runners’ recovery rate after a prolonged run. This is the first study that has focused on compression garments as a post-exercise recovery modality for experienced middle-aged long distance runners. The other unique aspect of this study is the prolonged two-hour treadmill protocol that was used to induce muscle soreness. In addressing the aims, a randomized, crossover study design was used to investigate the possible benefits that the high pressure (CCL II 23-32 mmHg (mercury millimeter)) graduated compression garments may bring about. Seven competitive male long distance runners (height: 176.0 ± 8.6 cm; body mass: 92.5 ± 11.8 kg; VO2max: 45.7 ± 5.0 mL.kg-1.min-1) between the ages of 36 to 51 years volunteered for the study. The runners had to complete a two-hour treadmill run at 70 % of their predetermined maximum aerobic capacity, followed by a monitored 72-hour recovery period. The first part of the prolonged run was a 90–minute variant gradient run, followed by a 30-minute downhill run. Each subject acted as his own control and visited the Stellenbosch University’s Sport Physiology Laboratory (South Africa) on two occasions, separated by 7 to 28 days. One test was done with a compression garment (23 to 32 mmHg) and the other without. Testing included the measurement of lower limb circumferences (ankle, calf, mid- and proximal thigh), plasma lactate, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase concentrations and the completion of subjective questionnaires on perceived muscle soreness (visual analog scale (VAS)). The lower extremities’ functional ability was determined with a time to exhaustion (TTE) step test, a vertical jump test (VJ) and modified sit-and-reach flexibility test. Preexercise measurements were taken and immediately after and during the 72 hour after the treadmill run and repeated for the second bout. The main outcomes of this study showed that the two-hour treadmill run induced delayed onset of muscle soreness, with and without the compression garment. Evidence of this was a significant rise in plasma creatine kinase (CKp) over the duration of both trials (P < 0.05). The compression garment significantly reduced swelling in the calf muscle (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Runners showed a lower perceived muscular pain and discomfort while performing functional knee movements at 24 and 48-hours after the two-hour run with the compression garment (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm and 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm on VAS, respectively; P < 0.05). Significant differences in perceived muscle soreness between the WCG and WOCG trials were observed at 24-hours after the run during rest (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm; P = 0.02) and with stretching (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm on VAS P = 0.02). The perceived pain associated with pressure was significantly lower with the compression garment at 24 (307 %) and 48-hours (237 %) after the run (P < 0.05). Blood lactate levels were reduced during the acute phase of recovery at 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) and 30 minutes (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) after the run, as well as plasma creatine kinase concentrations were statistically significantly lower at 24-hours (238.3 ± 81.3 vs. 413.3 ± 250.8 units.L-1; P = 0.005) after exercise with the compression garment. The two-hour treadmill run and the compression garment had no significant influence on the runners’ lower limb strength, power, endurance or flexibility (P > 0.05). Compression garments demonstrated the potential to enhance recovery after prolonged strenuous exercise in well trained middle-aged runners. In addition, runners did not experience additional fatigue from the moderate to high pressure garments. The effect of higher pressure compression garments on athletic performance and the psychological influence of the garment need further investigation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskillende tipes naoefening herstelstrategië, vorm deel van die moderne atleet se daaglikse routine. Dit is wel bekend dat onvoldoende herstel sal beteken dat die atleet se liggaam langer sal neen om aan te pas tussen inoefen sessies en kompetisies. Sekere bewerings word al gemaak omtrent die voordeligheid van kompressiesokkies tydens die herstelperiode na oefening sessies en kompetisies. Tot nou toe was daar beperkte wetenskaplike navorsing oor die invloed van kompressie sokkies of die herstel proses van sport aktiwiteite. Die voordeel van kompressie sokkies as ‘n moontlike herstelmetode, is dat dit koste-effektief, prakties en maklik verkrybaar is. Hierdie studie poog om ‘n ondersoek in te stel na die moontlike invloed wat kompressie sokkies op middeljarige lang-aftstandatlete se herstelperiode sal hê na ‘n verlengde hardloopsessie. Hierdie is die eerste studie wat konsentreer op kompressie sokkies as ‘n naoefenings hersteltegniek vir ervare middeljarige lang-afstandatlete. Die ander unieke aspek van die ondersoek is die langdurige tweeuur trapmeul protokol wat gebruik word om spierpyn te veroorsaak. Om die doel te bereik, is ’n lukrake oorkruis studie gebruik om ondersoek in te stel na die moontlike voordele van die hoë druk (CCL II 23-32 mmHg) kompressie sokkies. Hierdie sokkies toon ’n progressiewe verhooging van druk vanaf die enkle tot onder die knieskyf. Sewe mededingende langafstand atlete (lengte : 176.0 ± 8.6 cm; liggaams massa: 92.5 ± 11.8 kg; VO2maks: 45.7 ± 5.0 mL.kg-1.min-1) tussen die ouderdomme van 36 en 51 jaar, het aan die studie deel geneem. Die wedlopers moes ‘n twee-uur lange trapmeul toets voltooi, teen 70% van hul vooraf bepaalde maksimum aerobiese kapasiteit. Dit is gevolg deur ‘n gemonitorde 72-uur herstel periode. Die eerste deel van die twee-uur hardloop sessie was ‘n 90-minuut afwisselende opdraende en afdraende hardloop stel, wat gevolg is deur a 30-minuut afdraande deel. Elke deelnemer was sy eie kontrole en het op twee geleenthede die Stellenbosch Universiteit se Sport Fisiologiese Laboratorium (Suid Afrika) besoek. Die twee besoeke is tussen 7 en 28 dae geskei. Een toets is met kompressie sokkies gedoen (23 – 32 mmHg) en die ander sonder. Die toetse het die volgende behels: laer been omtrekke (enkel, kuit, middel- and bo dy), die versameling en ontleding van bloed monsters vir plasma laktaat, laktaat dehydrogenase and kreatine kinase konsentrasies en die voltooing van subjektiewe vraelyste oor die graad van spierpyn ervaaring (“visual analog scale” (VAS)). Die onderlyf funksionele vermoëns is bepaal met ’n tyd tot uitputtings traptoets, ‘n vertikale sprong toets en ‘n gewysige sit-en-strek soepelheids toets. Data is voor die oefeninge in gevorder asook direk daarna, en gedurende die 72 uur na die trapmeul draf. Die metings vir die tweede sessie is herhaal. Die hoof uitkomste van die studie het gewys dat die twee-uur trapmeulsessie het spierpyn veroorsaak, met en sonder die kompressie sokkies. Die bewys hiervan was ‘n betekensvolle toename in plasma kreatien kinase (CKp) oor die tydperk van albei oefening toetse (P<0.05). Die kompressie sokkies het die swelling in die kuitspiere verminder, in vergelyking met die toetse sonder kompressie sokkies (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Wedlopers met die kompressie sokkies het minder spierseerheid en ongerief aangeteken toe hulle knie beweegings gedoen het op 24 en 48-uur na die twee-ure trapmeul toets (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm op VAS en 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm op VAS, onderskeidelik; P < 0.05). Betekenisvolle verskille is waargeneem tussen die toetse met en sonder kompressie sokkies, op 24-uur na die twee-ure toets gedurende rus (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm op VAS; P = 0.02) en met strek oefeninge (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm op VAS P = 0.02). Die pyn wat ervaar was met drukking, was betekenisvol minder met die kompressie sokkies op 24 (307 %) en 48-uur (237 %) na die trapmeul sessie (P < 0.05). Bloed laktaat konsentrasie in die sirkulasie was verlaag gedurende die akute fase van die herstelings periode op 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) en 30 minute (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) na die hardloop sessie, sowel as die plasma kreatine kinase konsentrasie was statisties betekenisvol laer by 24 uur (238.3 ± 81.3 vs 413.3 ± 250.8 eenhede L-1; P = 0.005) na die hardloop sessie met die kompressie sokkies. Die twee-ure trapmeul toets en die kompressie sokkies het geen betekenisvolle invloed gehad op die wedlopers se onderlyf ledemate se plofkrag, uithouvermoë of soepelheid (P > 0.05) nie. Kompressie sokkies het gewys dat dit potensiaal het om met herstel te help na lang en harde oefening in geoefende middeljarige atlete. Nietemin is daar verdere wetenskaplike navorsing nodig om dit te bevestig. Wedlopers het nie addisionele vermoeienis van die drukking van kompressie sokkies ervaar nie. Sterker drukkende kompressie sokkies sowel as die sielkundige invloed van die sokkies benodig verdere navorsing.spierpyn ervaaring (“visual analog scale” (VAS)). Die onderlyf funksionele vermoëns is bepaal met ’n tyd tot uitputtings traptoets, ‘n vertikale sprong toets en ‘n gewysige sit-en-strek soepelheids toets. Data is voor die oefeninge in gevorder asook direk daarna, en gedurende die 72 uur na die trapmeul draf. Die metings vir die tweede sessie is herhaal. Die hoof uitkomste van die studie het gewys dat die twee-uur trapmeulsessie het spierpyn veroorsaak, met en sonder die kompressie sokkies. Die bewys hiervan was ‘n betekensvolle toename in plasma kreatien kinase (CKp) oor die tydperk van albei oefening toetse (P<0.05). Die kompressie sokkies het die swelling in die kuitspiere verminder, in vergelyking met die toetse sonder kompressie sokkies (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Wedlopers met die kompressie sokkies het minder spierseerheid en ongerief aangeteken toe hulle knie beweegings gedoen het op 24 en 48-uur na die twee-ure trapmeul toets (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm op VAS en 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm op VAS, onderskeidelik; P < 0.05). Betekenisvolle verskille is waargeneem tussen die toetse met en sonder kompressie sokkies, op 24-uur na die twee-ure toets gedurende rus (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm op VAS; P = 0.02) en met strek oefeninge (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm op VAS P = 0.02). Die pyn wat ervaar was met drukking, was betekenisvol minder met die kompressie sokkies op 24 (307 %) en 48-uur (237 %) na die trapmeul sessie (P < 0.05). Bloed laktaat konsentrasie in die sirkulasie was verlaag gedurende die akute fase van die herstelings periode op 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) en 30 minute (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) na die hardloop sessie, sowel as die plasma kreatine kinase konsentrasie was statisties betekenisvol laer by 24 uur (238.3 ± 81.3 vs 413.3 ± 250.8 eenhede L-1; P = 0.005) na die hardloop sessie met die kompressie sokkies. Die twee-ure trapmeul toets en die kompressie sokkies het geen betekenisvolle invloed gehad op die wedlopers se onderlyf ledemate se plofkrag, uithouvermoë of soepelheid (P > 0.05) nie. Kompressie sokkies het gewys dat dit potensiaal het om met herstel te help na lang en harde oefening in geoefende middeljarige atlete. Nietemin is daar verdere wetenskaplike navorsing nodig om dit te bevestig. Wedlopers het nie addisionele vermoeienis van die drukking van kompressie sokkies ervaar nie. Sterker drukkende kompressie sokkies sowel as die sielkundige invloed van die sokkies benodig verdere navorsing.