This thesis explores two sets of issues in contemporary epistemology. The first part explores issues surrounding the category of basic knowledge (or justification) – that is, at a first-pass, knowledge (or justification) which is immediate, in the sense that one’s justification for the known proposition doesn’t rest on any justification for believing other propositions. The second part investigates issues surrounding knowledge-closure and various conditions – namely, conclusive reasons, sensitivity, and safety – which some philosophers have claimed are necessary for knowledge. Each part of the thesis is substantial (there are five chapters in the first part and four in the second), and the two sets of issues – while evidently of independent interest – are interrelated in several ways. In broad outline, part one of the thesis concludes that, even if (in the worst case) the first-pass category of basic knowledge delineated above is not ultimately tenable (on account of credible arguments against it considered in chapter 5), there is a distinct category of knowledge, aptly called ‘basic’, which is, plausibly, tenable. Part two of the thesis, meanwhile, begins by attempting to render the conclusive reasons and sensitivity conditions – conditions the adoption of which involves rejection of knowledge-closure – in as plausible a form as possible. And a rejection of knowledge-closure has implications for the viability of the first-pass category of basic knowledge delineated above, in particular. Part two closes by exploring the safety condition: a start is made at defending a novel safety condition; and a possible application of the safety condition to the legal domain is considered. The Conclusion, which includes a prospectus for further work, ties the safety condition on knowledge (chapters 8 and 9) back to the notion of failure of transmission of epistemic warrant (an absolutely central notion in part one).

Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo descrever as construções linguísticas usadas para marcar a conclusão de um texto dissertativo-argumentativo e analisar, pela perspectiva da Gramaticalização e da Cognição, a construção mais frequente. Para tanto, uso um corpus composto por 500 redações de vestibular da FUVEST (Fundação para o vestibular USP), produzidas nos anos de 2007 a 2011, consideradas as melhores pela banca corretora. Como material de controle, analiso redações da FUVEST, de mesmos anos, consideradas as piores, bem como redações escolares e textos jornalísticos argumentativos (editoriais e artigo de opinião). Fundamento teoricamente esta tese nos estudos sobre Cognição, a partir de Tomasello (2003) e Bybee (2010), sobre Gramaticalização, com Diewald (2006), Traugott e Dasher (2005), Traugott (2008), Lehmann (1985, 2002 e 2011) e sobre Texto, com Halliday (1973), Halliday e Hasan (1976) e Koch (2002). Todo o material analisado teve tratamento quantitativo e qualitativo e chegou-se à determinação de quatro formas básicas de conclusão textual com uso de uma marca gramatical ou lexical para esse fim: fecho de raciocínio lógico, retomada, finalização e sinalização de conclusão. A construção mais frequente utilizada para concluir o texto (o portanto, com 33,2% de frequência de uso nas melhores redações da FUVEST e 38,6% nas piores) foi estudada levando-se em conta etimologia, estatuto categorial nos dicionários e uma análise diacrônica para estabelecer padrões funcionais e valores semânticos. Foi possível, assim, constatar que o portanto encontra-se em vários níveis de gramaticalização, a depender da categoria analisada, sendo que o estágio mais avançado de gramaticalização é como marcador de conclusão textual. Também é possível afirmar que, cognitivamente, o uso do portanto revela intencionalidade e atenção conjunta do escrevente com seu leitor. / This research aims to describe the linguistic constructions used to mark the conclusion of a dissertative-argumentative text and from the perspective of Grammaticalization and Cognition analyzes the most frequent construction. To do so, it is used a corpus of 500 essays from FUVEST (Foundation for the exam - USP) vestibular, produced in the years 2007 to 2011, they are considered the best the examination board. As control material, it is analyzed the FUVEST essays from the same years, that are considered the worst as well as school essays and argumentative-journalistic texts (editorials and opinion article). This thesis is theoretically based in studies on Cognition from Tomasello (2003) and Bybee (2010), on Grammaticalization with Diewald (2006), Traugott and Dasher (2005), Traugott (2008), Lehmann (1985, 2002 and 2011 ) and on Text with Halliday (1973), Hasan and Halliday (1976) and Koch (2002). All analyzed material had quantitative and qualitative treatment and four basic forms of textual conclusion were determination with use of a grammatical or lexical feature for this purpose: closing of logical reasoning, resumption, termination and signaling conclusion. The most common construction used in dissertative texts to complete the text (portanto, with 33.2% of use frequency in the best FUVEST compositions and 38.6% in the worst ones); the construction was studied taking into account etymology, the categorical status in the dictionaries and a diachronic analysis to establish functional standards and semantic values. It was thus possible to observe that portanto lies on multiple levels of grammaticalization, depending on the category analyzed, and the most advanced stage of grammaticalization is the marker of textual conclusion. It is also possible to assume that, cognitively, the use of portanto reveals intentionality and the scribe joint attention his/her reader.

Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo descrever as construções linguísticas usadas para marcar a conclusão de um texto dissertativo-argumentativo e analisar, pela perspectiva da Gramaticalização e da Cognição, a construção mais frequente. Para tanto, uso um corpus composto por 500 redações de vestibular da FUVEST (Fundação para o vestibular USP), produzidas nos anos de 2007 a 2011, consideradas as melhores pela banca corretora. Como material de controle, analiso redações da FUVEST, de mesmos anos, consideradas as piores, bem como redações escolares e textos jornalísticos argumentativos (editoriais e artigo de opinião). Fundamento teoricamente esta tese nos estudos sobre Cognição, a partir de Tomasello (2003) e Bybee (2010), sobre Gramaticalização, com Diewald (2006), Traugott e Dasher (2005), Traugott (2008), Lehmann (1985, 2002 e 2011) e sobre Texto, com Halliday (1973), Halliday e Hasan (1976) e Koch (2002). Todo o material analisado teve tratamento quantitativo e qualitativo e chegou-se à determinação de quatro formas básicas de conclusão textual com uso de uma marca gramatical ou lexical para esse fim: fecho de raciocínio lógico, retomada, finalização e sinalização de conclusão. A construção mais frequente utilizada para concluir o texto (o portanto, com 33,2% de frequência de uso nas melhores redações da FUVEST e 38,6% nas piores) foi estudada levando-se em conta etimologia, estatuto categorial nos dicionários e uma análise diacrônica para estabelecer padrões funcionais e valores semânticos. Foi possível, assim, constatar que o portanto encontra-se em vários níveis de gramaticalização, a depender da categoria analisada, sendo que o estágio mais avançado de gramaticalização é como marcador de conclusão textual. Também é possível afirmar que, cognitivamente, o uso do portanto revela intencionalidade e atenção conjunta do escrevente com seu leitor. / This research aims to describe the linguistic constructions used to mark the conclusion of a dissertative-argumentative text and from the perspective of Grammaticalization and Cognition analyzes the most frequent construction. To do so, it is used a corpus of 500 essays from FUVEST (Foundation for the exam - USP) vestibular, produced in the years 2007 to 2011, they are considered the best the examination board. As control material, it is analyzed the FUVEST essays from the same years, that are considered the worst as well as school essays and argumentative-journalistic texts (editorials and opinion article). This thesis is theoretically based in studies on Cognition from Tomasello (2003) and Bybee (2010), on Grammaticalization with Diewald (2006), Traugott and Dasher (2005), Traugott (2008), Lehmann (1985, 2002 and 2011 ) and on Text with Halliday (1973), Hasan and Halliday (1976) and Koch (2002). All analyzed material had quantitative and qualitative treatment and four basic forms of textual conclusion were determination with use of a grammatical or lexical feature for this purpose: closing of logical reasoning, resumption, termination and signaling conclusion. The most common construction used in dissertative texts to complete the text (portanto, with 33.2% of use frequency in the best FUVEST compositions and 38.6% in the worst ones); the construction was studied taking into account etymology, the categorical status in the dictionaries and a diachronic analysis to establish functional standards and semantic values. It was thus possible to observe that portanto lies on multiple levels of grammaticalization, depending on the category analyzed, and the most advanced stage of grammaticalization is the marker of textual conclusion. It is also possible to assume that, cognitively, the use of portanto reveals intentionality and the scribe joint attention his/her reader.

This diploma thesis deals with an electronic (digital) archiving issue and its using in the financial accounting and general company matters. The thesis is divided into two main parts - theoretical and practical. The theoretical part includes the legislative framework in the archiving theory, after that there is an analysis of means for the internal and external communication in companies. At the end of the theoretical part is contained an archiving standardization, archiving strategies and some products and solutions to a trustworthy electronic archiving in organizations. The practical part is based on the author's survey about using the electronic archiving in the Czech Republic. The procedure of the survey was performed by sending of an electronic questionnaire. At first, the structure of respondents is pursued, in the second part follows the analysis of the reached outcome.