Um estudo refinado dos filmes derivados do gel de pentóxido de vanádio foi realizado por meio de técnicas espectroscópicas e microscópicas visando compreender melhor as características deste material na escala microscópica. Foi demonstrado que o gel de pentóxido de vanádio é uma suspensão de nanopartículas anisotrópicas que se mantêm estáveis mesmo em altas concentrações. As propriedades estruturais e espectroscópicas destas nanopartículas foram revistas e discutidas no estado da arte. Em paralelo foi possível investigar fenômenos como a transição de fase induzida por laser e desenvolver aplicações tecnológicas em áreas como litografia e sensoriamento de gases. Ficou destacada nesta tese o grande potencial de investigação da microscopia Raman confocal na área de nanomateriais. / A refined study of films derived from vanadium pentoxide gel was carried out based on spectroscopic and microscopic techniques, aiming a better understanding of this material on a microscopic scale. It was demonstrated that the vanadium pentoxide gel consists of a suspension of anisotropic nanoparticles which remains stable even at high concentrations. The structural and spectroscopic properties of such nanoparticles were reviewed and discussed, providing new insights at the state of the art. It was also investigated the occurrence of some relevant phenomena, such as the laser induced phase transition, and to develop new technological applications in areas such as gas sensing and lithography. The collection of results described in thesis highlighted a great research potential of confocal Raman microscopy, in the field of nanomaterials.

Les bois sont une combinaison complexe de très fortes hétérogénéités multi-échelles, avec une trame de fond par espèce qui caractérise ses trois plans d'anisotropie. Les propriétés macroscopiques des bois dépendent de l'ensemble des échelles inférieures d'hétérogénéités : les cernes de croissance, les cellules, ainsi que l'organisation et la concentration des composés chimiques des parois cellulaires. Alors que l'effet des microfibrilles de cellulose cristalline de la phase solide sur les propriétés macroscopiques a été étudié, l'un des défis actuels consiste à évaluer le déterminisme des arrangements moléculaires au sein des parois sur les propriétés des cellules au sein d'un tissu. Dans ce contexte, le présent travail de thèse se développe selon deux axes : (i) La collecte d'informations sur les organisations pariétales à travers la diversité des cellules, et (ii) la caractérisation des propriétés micro-mécaniques à l'échelle du tissu, avec la prise en compte des échelles inférieures d'hétérogénéités. L'essentiel des descriptions sub-pariétales a été réalisé à l'aide d'un micro-spectromètre confocal Raman, et d'outils d'analyses dédiés qui ont été développés dans le cadre de cette étude. Les résultats obtenus ont par exemple permis de caractériser la paroi d'une cellule en formation (thylle), l'installation de la paroi secondaire dans des fibres, l'influence de stimuli environnementaux sur l'organisation sub-pariétale, ou encore le caractère continu de l'organisation spatiale des microfibrilles dans l'épaisseur des parois de différents types de cellules matures. La caractérisation mécanique a été réalisée selon la direction longitudinale des cellules, dans des essais de traction sur des éprouvettes de très faibles dimensions (épaisseur inférieure à 100 µm). La mise en évidence des phénomènes complexes en jeu dans le comportement mécanique a fait l'objet d'une étude sur la variation des propriétés structurales et mécaniques à l'intérieur d'un cerne. Les différentes phases de la relation contrainte-déformation ont été discutées, et une modélisation simplifiée par homogénéisation multi-échelle a notamment permis de poser un ensemble de pistes de réflexions sur le déterminisme de l'organisation sub-pariétale sur les propriétés mécaniques des cellules au sein d'un tissu. / Woods are a highly complex combination of multi-scale heterogeneities. Macroscopic properties of wood depend on all smaller scales of heterogeneity: growth rings, cells, as well as organization and concentration of cell wall chemical compounds. While the effect of the crystalline elements (microfibrils) of the solid phase on the macroscopic properties has been studied, one of the challenges is to estimate the determinism of the cell-wall molecular arrangements on the cells' properties inside a tissue. In this context, the present study is developed along two lines: (i) The collection of information on cell wall organization across the diversity of cells, and (ii) the characterization of micro-mechanical properties at the tissue level, with the consideration of smaller scales of heterogeneity. Most sub-cell wall descriptions were performed using a confocal Raman micro-spectrometer, and tools of analysis that were developed in this study. For example, obtained results have highlighted the cell wall of a living cell (thyllose), the cell wall formation in poplar fibers close to the cambial region, the impact of environmental stimuli on sub-cell wall organization, or else the continuous variation of the spatial organization of crystalline compounds in wall of different mature cells. The mechanical characterization was realized in the longitudinal direction on small samples (thickness below 100µm). The understanding of complex phenomena involved in the mechanical behavior was approached through a study on the variation of structural and mechanical properties within a ring. The different parts of the stress-strain curve have been discussed, and a simplified homogenization model has help to highlighted the determinism of sub-cell wall organization on the mechanical properties of cells at the tissue level.

<p>Self-oscillating behaviour in alkaline Cu(II)-lactate and -tartrate systems has been investigated by in-situ pH and confocal Raman spectroscopy measurements. Formation of Cu(II)-lactate and -tartrate complexes is a key factor underlying the self-oscillations. Dynamic processes in the diffusion layer have been probed to give a better understanding of the self-oscillating process.</p><p>The self-oscillating behaviour is found to be an effect of pH variations in the diffusion layer. Mainly copper is deposited at lower pH values and potentials; at the same time, the pH increases. This is an effect of the dissociation of the Cu(II)-complex during electrochemical reduction. The absence of a buffer within a given pH region is crucial to the fast and sudden pH increase and thereby to the positive potential shift, where cuprous oxide is deposited. A precipitation reaction probably decreases the pH again, leading to a negative potential shift, and copper again begins to deposit. The concentration and strength of the buffer in the electrolyte affect the appearance of the oscillation pattern. The pH and temperature of the bulk electrolyte also influence the self-oscillations. The deposit consists of copper and cuprous oxide, where the composition of the phases deposited is a function of the working-electrode potential. Cuprous oxide is deposited at the higher potentials and mainly copper at the lower potentials.</p><p>Finally, two-dimensional arrays of Cu/Cu₂O microcylinders have been deposited using the Cu(II)-lactate system through the application of a template method.</p>

The use of hydrophobic surfaces is important for many processes both in nature and industry. Interactions between hydrophobic species play a key role in industrial applications such as water-cleaning procedures and pitch control during papermaking but they also give information on how to design surfaces like hydrophobic mineral pigments. In this thesis, the influence of surface properties on wetting and interaction forces has been studied. Surfaces with close-packed particles, pore arrays, randomly deposited nanoparticles as well as reference surfaces were prepared. The atomic force microscope (AFM) was utilized for force and friction measurements while contact angles and confocal Raman microscopy experiments were mainly used for wetting studies. The deposition of silica particles in the size range of nano- to micrometers using the Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) technique resulted in particle coated surfaces exhibiting hexagonal close-packing and close to Wenzel state wetting after hydrophobization. Force measurements displayed long-range interaction forces assigned to be a consequence of air cavitation. Smaller roughness features provided larger forces and interaction distances interpreted as being due to fewer restrictions of capillary growth. Friction measurements proved both the surface structure and chemistry to be important for the observed forces. On hydrophobic pore array surfaces, the three-phase contact line of water droplets avoided the pores which created a jagged interface. The influence of the pores was evident in the force curves, both in terms of the shape, in which the three-phase contact line movements around the pores could be detected, as well as the depth of the pores providing different access and amount of air. When water/ethanol mixtures were used, the interactions were concluded to be due to ethanol condensation. Confocal Raman microscopy experiments with water and water/ethanol mixtures on superhydrophobic surfaces gave evidence for water depletion and ethanol/air accumulation close to the surface. Force measurements using superhydrophobic surfaces showed extremely long-range interaction distances. This work has provided evidence for air cavitation between hydrophobic surfaces in aqueous solution. It was also shown that the range and magnitude of interaction forces could, to some extent, be predicted by looking at certain surface features like structure,roughness and the overall length scales. / <p>QC 20121011</p>

Self-oscillating behaviour in alkaline Cu(II)-lactate and -tartrate systems has been investigated by in-situ pH and confocal Raman spectroscopy measurements. Formation of Cu(II)-lactate and -tartrate complexes is a key factor underlying the self-oscillations. Dynamic processes in the diffusion layer have been probed to give a better understanding of the self-oscillating process. The self-oscillating behaviour is found to be an effect of pH variations in the diffusion layer. Mainly copper is deposited at lower pH values and potentials; at the same time, the pH increases. This is an effect of the dissociation of the Cu(II)-complex during electrochemical reduction. The absence of a buffer within a given pH region is crucial to the fast and sudden pH increase and thereby to the positive potential shift, where cuprous oxide is deposited. A precipitation reaction probably decreases the pH again, leading to a negative potential shift, and copper again begins to deposit. The concentration and strength of the buffer in the electrolyte affect the appearance of the oscillation pattern. The pH and temperature of the bulk electrolyte also influence the self-oscillations. The deposit consists of copper and cuprous oxide, where the composition of the phases deposited is a function of the working-electrode potential. Cuprous oxide is deposited at the higher potentials and mainly copper at the lower potentials. Finally, two-dimensional arrays of Cu/Cu2O microcylinders have been deposited using the Cu(II)-lactate system through the application of a template method.

L'objet de cette thèse est l'étude de la pénétration des actifs cosmétiques dans la peau. Les axes d'investigation principaux ont concerné l'influence des propriétés physicochimiques des actifs et des ingrédients de la formule sur les mécanismes de pénétration. Les actifs cosmétiques choisis sont le rétinol, actif lipophile, et la caféine, actif hydrophile. Les formulations investiguées sont des émulsions de type huile dans eau, comparées aux solutions de tensioactifs correspondantes. Trois huiles cosmétiques ont été utilisées: Butylène glycol de cocoate, Octyldodecyl myristate et la Paraffine liquide, stabilisées en émulsion avec des tensioactifs ester de polyéthylène glycol (PEG20 et PEG6) possédant des longueurs de chaîne carbonées variables (C8, C12, C18 et C18:1). La pénétration percutanée a été mesurée quantitativement en utilisant la méthode des cellules de diffusion de Franz en fonctionnement statique et dynamique et qualitativement par la microscopie confocale Raman. Avec cette combinaison de techniques analytiques, il est possible, de mesurer la pénétration et d'évaluer l'impact de chaque composant de la formulation sur la pénétration cutanée d'un actif. Une corrélation a pu être établie entre l'effet fluidifiant d'une huile et l'augmentation de la pénétration du rétinol. Par ailleurs les tensioactifs, même s'ils ont montré un effet moindre en terme de fluidification conduisent également à une augmentation de la pénétration en raison d'une variation du coefficient de partage de l'actif entre la formule et la peau. Concernant la caféine, l'influence de la structure des tensioactifs et en particulier de la longueur de chaîne carbonée a été mise en évidence

Les biofilms sont des communautés complexes de microorganismes, enchassées dans une matrice auto-secrétée de substances polymériques extracellulaires ou EPS. Les biofilms se forment à la surface de la plupart des matériaux, qu’ils soient de nature biologique ou non, et sont à l’origine de divers problèmes économiques et sanitaires. Les bactéries dans un biofilm, dites bactéries sessiles, présentent en effet des propriétés phénotypiques qui les distinguent de leurs homologues planctoniques, notamment par une résistance accrue aux antibiotiques et aux traitements de désinfection. D’où, la nécessité de prévenir leur formation et/ ou de leur élimination à partir de stratégies mieux adaptées à ce mode de vie en communauté. Le développement de telles stratégies passe entre autre par une meilleure connaissance des contributions physico-chimiques gouvernant les interactions de ces microorganismes avec leur environnement proche notamment lors des étapes initiales de la formation des biofilms. Deux grands objectifs ont été fixés au début de cette thèse, le premier visant à caractériser, in situ et en temps réel la formation de jeunes biofilms de deux modèles bactériens : une souche naturelle et ubiquitaire de Pseudomonas fluorescens et une souche modèle d’Escherichia coli obtenue par génie génétique pour surexprimer un seul type d’EPS. Le deuxième objectif de cette thèse, consiste à étudier leurs réponses à un stress environnemental ou chimique, notamment quand les biofilms doivent se développer dans des conditions extrêmes de pH. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, différentes techniques ont été combinées pour étudier de l’échelle moléculaire à l’échelle cellulaire le développement des biofilms. La spectroscopie Infrarouge à Transformée de Fourier en mode réflexion totale atténuée (FTIR-ATR) a été utilisée pour suivre en temps réel le développement des biofilms. Nous avons pu suivre l’évolution des empreintes spectrales IR-ATR au cours de la formation des biofilms, sous des conditions favorables ou non à leur croissance. De jeunes biofilms de 24 h ont été étudiés par microspectroscopie Raman confocale (MRC), celle ci permettant d’obtenir des informations localisées sur la composition chimique des biofilms. La structure générale des biofilms a été visualisée par la microscopie à épifluorescence. Finalement, les propriétés physico-chimiques des EPS ont été quantifiées par spectroscopie de force atomique à l’échelle de la molécule unique (SMFS pour Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy). / Biofilms are complex communities of microorganisms, embedded in an auto-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances or EPS. Biofilms form on the surface of most materials, whether or not they are of biological nature, and cause major economic problems as well as public health concerns. Bacteria within a biofilm also called sessile bacteria, have phenotypic characteristics that distinguish them from their planktonic counterparts, rendering them more resistant to antibiotics and to disinfection strategies. Hence, the prevention of their formation and/ or their elimination requires the use of strategies that are well suited to the sessile mode of life. The development of these strategies begins with a better understanding of the physicochemical contributions that govern the interaction between the sessile community and its environment especially during the first steps of biofilm formation. Two main objectives were defined at the beginning of this thesis, the first was to characterize, in situ, and in real time the development of nascent biofilms. Two bacterial models were studied: a natural and ubiquitous strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens and a model strain of Escherichia coli genetically modified to overexpress one type of EPS. The second objectif was to study their responses towards an environmental or chemical stress; particularly how their development would be affected under extreme conditions of pH. To gain these objectives, different techniques were combined to study from the molecular to the cellular scale the development of biofilms. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy in attenuated total reflection mode was used to evaluate in real time the development of biofilms. We were able to detect changes in the IR-ATR spectral profile along biofilm formation under favorable and non favorable growth conditions. 24 h - old biofilms were characterized using confocal Raman microspectroscopy, which allowed us to gather localized information on their chemical composition. The structure of biofilms was visualized using epifluorescence microscocopy. Finally, physico-chemical properties of EPS were quantified using single molecule force spectroscopy

Um estudo refinado dos filmes derivados do gel de pentóxido de vanádio foi realizado por meio de técnicas espectroscópicas e microscópicas visando compreender melhor as características deste material na escala microscópica. Foi demonstrado que o gel de pentóxido de vanádio é uma suspensão de nanopartículas anisotrópicas que se mantêm estáveis mesmo em altas concentrações. As propriedades estruturais e espectroscópicas destas nanopartículas foram revistas e discutidas no estado da arte. Em paralelo foi possível investigar fenômenos como a transição de fase induzida por laser e desenvolver aplicações tecnológicas em áreas como litografia e sensoriamento de gases. Ficou destacada nesta tese o grande potencial de investigação da microscopia Raman confocal na área de nanomateriais. / A refined study of films derived from vanadium pentoxide gel was carried out based on spectroscopic and microscopic techniques, aiming a better understanding of this material on a microscopic scale. It was demonstrated that the vanadium pentoxide gel consists of a suspension of anisotropic nanoparticles which remains stable even at high concentrations. The structural and spectroscopic properties of such nanoparticles were reviewed and discussed, providing new insights at the state of the art. It was also investigated the occurrence of some relevant phenomena, such as the laser induced phase transition, and to develop new technological applications in areas such as gas sensing and lithography. The collection of results described in thesis highlighted a great research potential of confocal Raman microscopy, in the field of nanomaterials.

Ce travail de recherche rapporte l'utilisation de techniques biophotoniques pour investiguer des questions biomédicales, de la recherche fondamentale (interaction champs électriques impulsionnels / cellules) aux études cliniques (toxicité cutanée induite chez les patients traités par des thérapies ciblées).La microspectroscopie confocale Raman et de la microscopie terahertz ont été utilisées pour étudier le processus d’électroperméabilisation cellulaire d'un point de vue moléculaire. Nos résultats démontrent l'implication des protéines. De plus, nous avons montré que la signature Raman des cellules peut être utilisée comme un biomarqueur précis des différents états des cellules exposées aux chocs électriques, correspondant à une électroperméabilisation non détectable, électroperméabilisation et irréversibleEn tant que projet parallèle de ce doctorat, une recherche clinique a été réalisée afin d'étudier la toxicité cutanée induite chez les patients traités par des thérapies anticancéreuses ciblées. Bien que l'efficacité de ces thérapies ne soit pas discutée, de nombreux effets cutanées secondaires graves sont associés. Dans cette étude, nous avons étudié l'opportunité de prédire l’apparition de la toxicité cutanée au moyen de la microspectroscopie Raman confocale réalisée sur la peau des patients. Nous avons réussi à déterminer un nouveau biomarqueur pharmacodynamique spécifique de la toxicité cutanée grâce aux signatures Raman de la peau des patients; alors que l'évaluation dermatologique ou histologique n'a détecté aucune modification. / This research work reports the use of various biophotonics techniques to investigate biomedical questions, from basic research (interaction between pulsed electric fields and cells) to clinical studies (skin toxicity induced in patients treated with targeted anticancer therapies).Confocal Raman microspectroscopy and terahertz microscopy have been used to investigate cell electropermeabilization process from a molecular point of view. Our results demonstrate the involvement of the proteins in cell electropermeabilization. Moreover, we have shown that the Raman signatures of the cells could be used as an accurate biomarker of the different states of the cells exposed to pulsed electric fields, corresponding to no detectable electropermeabilization, reversible and irreversible electropermeabilization.Finally, this doctorate research demonstrates the opportunity to predict skin toxicity induced by targeted anticancer therapies by means of confocal Raman microspectroscopy. We succedded to determine a novel and specific pharmacodynamic biomarker for skin toxicity based on the Raman signatures of the patient’s skin, whereas dermatological or histologicalevaluation did not detect any modifications.

Corrosion of metallic materials is a natural process, and our study shows that even in an alkaline environment severe corrosion may occur on a carbon steel surface. While corrosion cannot be stopped it can be retarded. Many of the traditional anti-corrosion approaches such as the chromate process are effective but hazardous to the environment and human health. Mefp-1, a protein derived from blue mussel byssus, is well known for its extraordinary adhesion and film forming properties. Moreover, it has been reported that Mefp-1 confers a certain corrosion protection for stainless steel. All these facts indicate that this protein may be developed into corrosion inhibitors with ‘green’, ‘effective’ and ‘smart’ properties. In this study, a range of surface-sensitive techniques have been used to investigate adsorption kinetics, film forming and film compaction mechanisms of Mefp-1. In situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) enables the protein adsorption on substrates to be visualized, whereas the ex situ AFM facilitates the characterization of micro- and nano-structures of the protein films. In situ Peak Force AFM can be used to determine nano-mechanical properties of the surface layers. The quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) was used to reveal the build-up of the Mefp-1 film on substrates and measure the viscoelastic properties of the adsorbed film. Analytical techniques and theoretical calculations were applied to gain insights into the formation and compaction processes such as oxidation and complexation of pre-formed Mefp-1 films. The electron probe micro analyzer (EPMA) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were utilized to obtain the chemical composition of the surface layer. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were performed to evaluate the corrosion inhibition efficiency of different forms of Mefp-1 on carbon steel substrates. The results demonstrate that Mefp-1 adsorbs on carbon steel surfaces across a broad pH interval, and it forms a continuous film covering the substrate providing a certain extent of corrosion protection. At a higher pH, the adsorption is faster and the formed film is more compact. At neutral pH, results on the iron substrate suggest an initially fast adsorption, with the molecules oriented preferentially parallel to the surface, followed by a structural change within the film leading to molecules extending towards solution. Both oxidation and complexation of the Mefp-1 can lead to the compaction of the protein films. Addition of Fe3+ induces a transition from an extended and soft protein layer to a denser and stiffer one by enhancing the formation of tri-Fe3+/catechol complexes in the surface film, leading to water removal and film compaction. Exposure to a NaIO4 solution results in the cross-linking of Mefp-1, which also results in a significant compaction of the pre-formed protein film. Mefp-1 is an effective corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel when added to an acidic solution, and the inhibition efficiency increases with time. As a film-forming corrosion inhibitor, the pre-formed Mefp-1 film provides a certain level of corrosion protection for short term applications, and the protection efficiency can be significantly enhanced by the film compaction processes. For the long term applications, a thin film composed of Mefp-1 and ceria nanoparticles was developed. The deposited Mefp-1/ceria composite film contains micro-sized aggregates of Mefp-1/Fe3+ complexes and CeO2 particles. The Mefp-1/ceria film may promote the further oxidation of ferrous oxides, and the corrosion resistance increases with time. Moreover, phosphate ions react with Fe ions released from the surface and form deposits preferentially at the surface defect sites. The deposits incorporate into the Mefp-1/ceria composite film and heal the surface defects, which result in a significantly improved corrosion inhibition effect for the Mefp-1/ceria composite film in both initial and prolonged exposure situations / <p>QC 20130610</p>