ABSTRACT Wildebeest are part of the sub family Alcelaphinae and the genus Connochaetes. There are two extant species of wildebeest namely Connochaetes gnou (black wildebeest) and Connochaetes taurinus (blue wildebeest). From fossil evidence, it is thought that co-generic blue and black wildebeest diverged ca. 1Ma. Historically, geographic ranges of these two species have overlapped, but different social behaviour and habitat preference prevented sexual interaction. It has been proposed that reproductive isolation between C. taurinus and C. gnou may have disappeared due to artificial management. This has caused mate choice to change in the absence of species-specific mates, resulting in hybridisation. Most documented cases of hybridisation have occurred from dispersing blue wildebeest bulls introgressing into black herds however, the opposite has been observed. Genetic studies on a population where the blue males have introgressed with black females, show that the blue wildebeest populations are “pure” and that the black wildebeest populations are receiving an influx of blue alleles. In this research, 14 skeletons of modern hybrid Connochaetes taurinus and Connochaetes gnou, from more than one post-hybridisation generation from the Spioenkop reserve, were morphologically as well as metrically compared with a sample of ten modern “pure” blue and 15 black wildebeest. This project showed that univariate, bivariate statistical analyses of selected measurements of the skeletons were successful in identifying all of the Spioenkop individuals as hybrids. Morphologically, the hybrids exhibit a general increase in body size, and have unusual horns. The auditory bullae of the Spioenkop specimens are highly deformed, as are some axes. There is unusual bone growth on most of the post crania, morphological differences are observed on the distal ends of the metapodials, and the radius and ulna are fused in many specimens.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The microbial growth, colour stability and pH changes for black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) meat under chilled (4.2±0.8°C) vacuum storage were investigated. The investigation centred on the role of ultimate muscle pH on shelf life of the meat. Although bacterial growth was observed over time for both DFD (pH >6) and Normal (pH <6) meat, DFD meat exhibited higher growth rates for lactic acid bacteria (LAB), total viable counts (TVC) and total coliforms. This was attributed to the combination of high pH and possibly the depletion of glucose in the DFD muscles. On the other hand, the growth rate of total coliforms was less than what was observed for the other microorganisms tested. It was assumed that chilled vacuum storage in combination with the high levels of LAB inhibited the growth of total coliforms. Salmonella was not detected in any of the samples analysed. There were no changes in pH during the 12 days storage period for DFD meat whereas pH for Normal meat decreased towards the end of storage possibly due to lactic acid production by LAB. The colour changes were more noticeable in Normal meat (more browning) than in DFD meat after blooming for 30 min. The conclusion for this study was that DFD meat spoiled faster than Normal meat. The meat was further subjected to preservation by oregano essential oil (1% v·v-1). In this case, there was an initial inhibition of TVC, LAB and total coliforms. Furthermore, the growth rates for TVC and LAB were lower (p<0.05) in the oregano oil treatment group than in the control. For total coliforms however, there was only an initial inhibition observed and no effect on the growth rate. Addition of oregano essential oil also resulted in a significant lowering of meat pH. This may have added to the microbial inhibition observed. Based on TVC values, addition of oregano essential oil extended the shelf-life of black wildebeest meat by 3 days. At the beginning of the study, the lipid oxidation (TBARS) values were above the threshold for detection. Also, the percentage of metmyoglobin had exceeded the levels at which browning becomes visible. Therefore, conclusions on the effects of oregano essential oil on the colour and lipid oxidations were not made in this study. However, oregano essential oil inhibited microbial growth and stabilised TBARS throughout the 9 day storage period. Therefore there is potential to use oregano essential oil as a preservative for black wildebeest meat, although more research is needed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word die mikrobiese groei, stabiliteit en pH kleur verandering ondersoek vir swartwildebeestevleis onder verkoelde (4.2 ± 0.8 ° C) vakuum berging. Die ondersoek is spesifiek gefokus op die rol van die eind-spier pH op die raklewe van die vleis. Alhoewel mikrobiese groei vir beide DFD (pH >6) en Normal (pH <6) vleis waarneembaar was met verloop van tyd, het die DFD vleis hoër groeitempo vir melksuurbakterieë (MSB) en totale lewensvatbare tellings (LVT) getoon. Dit was as gevolg van die kombinasie van hoë pH en die moontlikheid van die vermindering van die glukose in die DFD spiere. Aan die ander kant was dit waargeneem dat die groeikoers van die totale kolivormig bakterieë minder was, teenoor die ander mikro-organismes wat getoets was. Dit was aangeneem dat die verkoelde vakuum stoor die groei van die totale kolivormig bakterieë geïnhibeer het. Salmonella was nie opgespoor in enige van die geanaliseerde monsters nie. Daar was geen verandering in pH tydens die stoor tydperk vir DFD vleis nie, maar die pH vir normale vleis het tydens die einde van die stoor tydperk afgeneem. Die kleur verandering onder vakuum stoor was meer waarneembaar in die normale vleis as wat dit was in die DFD vleis. Die gevolgtrekking van hierdie studie was dat DFD vleis baie vinniger bederf teenoor normale vleis. Maar daar was variasie op die gewig van die oorspronklike mikrobiese lading en dit kon die bakteriese groeitempo van die normale vleis beïnvloed. Die vleis is verder behandel met oregano essensiële olie ( 1 % v·v-1) vir preservering . In hierdie geval, was daar 'n aanvanklike inhibisie van LVT, MSB en totale kolivormig bakterieë. Verder was die groeitempo vir LVT en MSB aansienlik laer (p<0.05 ) in die behandelings groep teenoor die in die kontrole . Vir die totale kolivormig bakterieë was daar egter net 'n aanvanklike inhibisie waargeneem en geen effek op die groeikoers nie. Die byvoeging van oregano essensiële olie het ook gelei tot 'n beduidende verlaging van die pH. Dit kon gelei het tot die mikrobiese inhibisie wat waar geneem was. Gebaseerd op die LVT, het die byvoeging van oregano essensiële olie gelei tot die verlenging van die swartwildebeeste vleis se raklewe met 3 dae. Aan die begin van hierdie studie was die lipied oksidasie (TBARS) waardes bo die drumpel van opsporing. Ook, die persentasie van metmyoglobin het die vlakke waarop verbruining sigbaar word, oorskry. Daar is potensiaal vir die gebruik van oregano essensiële olie as n middel vir die verlenging van swartwildebees vleis, maar nog navorsing is nodig.

Please read the abstract in the section, 09summary, of this document / Thesis (PhD (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Zoology and Entomology / PhD / unrestricted

Wild animal capture has progressed over the years from trapping or physical capture, which was dangerous to both animal and man, to chemical immobilization. Opioids and butyrophenones are the most common classes of drugs used for ungulate immobilization; however newer drugs and drug combinations are commonly used in an attempt to reduce time to immobilization in wildlife. The enzyme hyaluronidase is often added to drug combinations in the belief that it reduces time to immobilization by improving drug absorption. The primary objective of this study was to ascertain if the addition of hyaluronidase to an etorphine and azaperone drug combination would be of value in reducing time to immobilization in blue wildebeest. The study also tried to ascertain if the added hyaluronidase enabled one to reduce the etorphine and azaperone doses required to immobilize blue wildebeest, without affecting time to immobilization. The study made use of a four-way cross-over study design, with four treatment groups, four sequences and four periods. The four treatment groups were etorphine and azaperone; etorphine, azaperone and 5000 international units (IU) hyaluronidase; etorphine, azaperone and 7500 IU hyaluronidase; and 75 % of the original etorphine dose, 75% of the original azaperone dose and 7500 IU hyaluronidase. Each animal was immobilized with each of the above four drug combinations randomly over an eight week period with a two week interval between each period. The times to first effect, first down and immobilization were recorded. The etorphine and azaperone treatment group was used as the control group. The difference in time to first effect between the control group and the etorphine, azaperone and 7500 IU hyaluronidase treatment group was statistically significant (95 seconds versus 67 seconds; p = 0.007). When compared to the time to immobilization in the control group (323 seconds) the time to immobilization in the etrophine, azaperone and 5000 IU hyaluronidase (228 seconds); etorphine, azaperone and 7500 IU hyaluronidase (210 seconds) and the low dose etorphine, low dose azaperone and 7500 IU hyaluronidase (268 seconds) groups were statistically significantly reduced (p=0.002, p=0.001 and p=0.045 respectively). It is therefore concluded that the addition of 5000 or 7500 IU hyaluronidase to an etorphine and azaperone combination significantly reduced the time to immobilization in blue wildebeest. The unexpected decrease in time to immobilization in the low dose etorphine, low dose azaperone and 7500 IU hyaluronidase treatment group requires further investigation. / Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

La trazodone est une drogue antagoniste et agoniste dose-dépendante de la sérotonine utilisée en médecine humaine et vétérinaire pour le traitement de troubles reliés à l’anxiété. Le trauma a été identifié comme la cause primaire de morbidité et de mortalité chez plusieurs espèces de ruminants sauvages et peut être exacerbé par le stress. Dans une étude récente chez la chèvre domestique, la trazodone a réduit les niveaux d’activité sans effets secondaires. La trazodone a le potentiel de réduire le stress et de permettre des captures et manipulations plus sécuritaires chez ces espèces. Les objectifs de cette étude étaient d’identifier une dose de trazodone résultant en une diminution du niveau d’activité chez une espèce de ruminant sauvage, le gnou bleu (Connochaetes taurinus), d’évaluer la sécurité de cette dose et ses effets sur les concentrations de cortisol sérique suivant une procédure vétérinaire de routine. Une étude pilote effectuée à l’aide d’éthogrammes a permis d’identifier une dose orale de 15 mg/kg comme étant efficace pour réduire les niveaux d’activité. Cette dose a mené à une augmentation de 111% du temps passé à dormir/se reposer (P = 0.0003) et de 41% du temps à être couché (P = 0.0016) et une diminution 64% du temps passé à bouger (P = 0.005) et de 65% du temps passé à être vigilant (P = 0.026). La concentration systémique de trazodone mesurée 2 heures suivant l’administration était de 95 ± 48 µg/L. Les concentrations de cortisol sérique durant une procédure de prise sanguine n’ont pas été significativement modifiées par l’administration de trazodone (P > 0.05). Le seul effet adverse noté avec la dose de 15 mg/kg était la baisse d’appétit, ce qui n’était pas présent avec la dose de 12 mg/kg évaluée lors du projet pilote. La trazodone apparaît sécuritaire et prometteuse pour la diminution de l’activité chez le gnou bleu et ainsi pour avoir des effets positifs sur leur bien-être et la sécurité des ruminants sauvages lors de procédures vétérinaires. / Trazodone is a dose-dependant serotonin antagonist and agonist used in human and veterinary medicine to treat anxiety-related conditions. Trauma has been identified as the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in several wild ruminant species and can be exacerbated by stress. In a recent study in domestic goats, trazodone reduced activity levels without adverse effects. Trazodone could allow for safer capture and handling in ruminant species. The objectives of the present study were to identify a dose of trazodone that decreases activity levels in captive blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), to evaluate its effects on serum cortisol levels following a routine veterinary procedure, and its safety. A pilot study using ethograms identified a 15 mg/kg oral dose of trazodone as effective to reduce activity levels. Over 6 hours, this dose resulted in a 111% increase in time spent sleeping/resting (P=0.0003), a 41% increase in time spent lying down (P=0.0016), a 64% reduction in time spent moving (P=0.005), and a 65% reduction in time spent being vigilant (P=0.026). Systemic absorption of trazodone was identified when plasma concentrations were measured after 2 hours (95 ± 48 µg/L). Serum cortisol levels during a routine venipuncture event were not significantly different following trazodone adminstration (P > 0.05). Mild hyporexia was the only adverse effect noted at 15 mg/kg and was absent at a 12 mg/kg dose. Trazodone appears safe and promising to decrease activity in the blue wildebeest and might thus have a positive effect on wild ruminant welfare and the safety of veterinary procedures.