The transition to flowering is a major developmental switch in angiosperms, the timing of which is expected to be important for fitness. In this thesis the focus has been on identification of genes affecting natural variation in flowering time in Brassica nigra. The background for this thesis is an earlier QTL-mapping study in B. nigra. The genomic area with the greatest effect on flowering time in that study contained a homolog to the CONSTANS gene, which is known to affect flowering time in A. thaliana. When studied more closely this gene did not seem to affect flowering time variation in B. nigra. Near the B.nigra CO gene (BniCOa), however, we identified a homolog to the related CONSTANS LIKE 1 (COL1) gene. In A. thaliana COL1 has not been shown to be associated with induction of flowering but since the B. nigra homolog (BniCOL1) in the QTL area showed surprising amounts of variation between early and late flowering plants we set out to test if this variation was associated with flowering time variation. In the first paper we found a significant association between flowering time and one indel (Ind2) in the coding region. Motivated by the results in paper one, we searched for evidence of selection at the BniCOL1(paper two). In paper three the aim was to validate the results from the first paper in a larger sample of populations, and to check whether the association found in paper I could reflect linkage disequilibrium with areas outside of the gene. Finally, in paper four we investigate the general evolution of three CONSTANS-LIKE genes in B. nigra, namely BniCOL1, BniCOa and BniCOb.

This thesis examines the foreign policy of Constans II as the first Byzantine Emperor to rule after the initial Arab conquests in Syria-Palestine. His reign, 641-668, was the first reign of a Byzantine Emperor where the entire reign was subject to Arab raids and invasions. Constans II also had to contend with the Slavs in Thessalonica and Greece and the Lombards in Italy. To complicate matters more, Constans II was forced to cope with the religious division between the eastern and western churches due to Monothelitism in the East. Beset on every frontier and inheriting a much reduced empire after decades of intermittent warfare and several disastrous defeats, scholars have reasoned that Constans II's reign was defensive and turbulent in nature. This thesis uses literary and archeological sources to argue that Constans II had a foreign policy focused on actively retaking lost Byzantine territory. While stabilizing the frontiers in his early reign, he suffered devastating defeats and serious threats, primarily from the sea, where the Arab navy had gained superiority. His attempt in securing the western provinces of Italy and North Africa demonstrate not an emperor who was abandoning Constantinople, but one that was attempting to regain the initiative from the Arabs and deprive them of Egypt, which was providing the Arabs with a navy, wealth, and an agricultural surplus. Despite the Byzantine losses Constans II did not accept the transformation in Byzantine territory and influence. The thesis concludes with a historical analysis of his successors and how their foreign policies differed from Constans II's.

Flowering in Arabidopsis thalina is controlled by multiple pathways and is repressed by cold. To understand how A. thalina molecularly responds to cold stress temperatures, we subjected seedlings to different temperatures of cold stress for four days. Specifically, we conducted quantitative PCR of CONSTANS (CO) and the F-Box protein FKF1 to observe specifically how cold temperatures might affect the flowering time of a plant. We found a 16°C cold stress temperature increased both CO and FKF1 transcription when compared to a 24°C control. The increased expression of both CO and FKF1 may serve as a priming pathway that enables plants to be ready to flower at the precise moment when spring arrives.

Onset of flowering is a major transition in the plant life cycle and is controlled by environmental factors including photoperiod, light quality and temperature. Prevalence of controlling factors depends on species, hence physiological models were selected for their strong requirement for one or another environmental cue. Among Brassicaceae, Sinapis alba was intensively studied for its strong response to photoperiod while molecular-genetic analyses of Arabidopsis thaliana disclosed complex interactions between pathways inducing flowering in response to photoperiod and other environmental cues, such as vernalization. We were therefore interested in studying the vernalization process in S. alba and its interactions with the previously characterized floral response to long days (LDs). Two-week old seedlings grown in non-inductive short days (SDs) were vernalized at 7°C for increasing durations and a strong promotive effect of vernalization was observed. In contrast to the common view of vernalization as a preliminary step bringing the competence to flower, we observed that vernalization had a direct inductive effect on flowering: floral buds were initiated during cold-exposure. Floral integrator genes SaMADSA (homologous to SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CO 1) and SaLEAFY were up-regulated in the shoot apex after 3-4 weeks of vernalization. To monitor the vernalization process at the molecular level, we isolated SaFLC which, based on sequence analysis, expression patterns and complementation test, appeared as orthologous to FLOWERING LOCUS C. Down-regulation of SaFLC by vernalization was fast since transcript level was already very low after one week of vernalization, but stability of the repression required longer exposure to cold. To test the physiological significance of these observations, we studied the floral response to 16-h LDs after unstable and stable repression of SaFLC. We observed that one week of vernalization which was sufficient for SaFLC repression but not for maintenance of the silenced state - increased the flowering response of S. alba to LDs when the LDs just followed the cold treatment. This effect was lost after two weeks post-vernalization. In contrast, the promotive effect of longer vernalization on flowering response to LDs was maintained post-vernalization. These results suggested that vernalization not only works when plants experience long exposure to cold in winter: short cold periods might stimulate flowering of LD-plants if occurring when photoperiod is increasing, i.e. in spring.

La morphogenèse aérienne inclut des caractères de croissance, de développement et de phénologie, et conditionne fortement la valeur d'usage des Légumineuses. Parmi ces caractères, la floraison est un événement majeur du cycle de vie car elle est déterminante pour le succès reproductif. Elle correspond à la transition généralement non réversible d'un méristème végétatif produisant des feuilles et tiges, en un méristème floral. La régulation de ce phénomène morphogénétique est le fait d'un réseau complexe de signalisations. Les légumineuses cultivées ont souvent des génomes complexes. C'est le cas de la luzerne (Medicago sativa), espèce fourragère pérenne, tétraploïde et allogame ainsi que du pois (P. sativum) qui présente un génome de grande taille. Des études précises peuvent être menées sur la légumineuse modèle Medicago truncatula, espèce diploïde, annuelle, à cycle court et autogame. De nombreuses ressources génétiques et génomiques sont disponibles chez cette espèce qui possède un fort degré de synténie avec la luzerne et le pois. De plus des gènes intervenant dans le déterminisme de la date de floraison ont été décrits chez A. thaliana et chez le pois. L'objectif de la thèse est d'identifier des zones du génome et des gènes en utilisant les connaissances et outils développés chez M. truncatula, A. thaliana et P. sativum dans le déterminisme génétique de la date de floraison chez M. truncatula. Après une analyse de l'effet de la photopériode sur la date de floraison d'une gamme de lignées, une approche " gènes candidats positionnels " a été mise en oeuvre. La méthodologie employée consiste à montrer la variabilité génétique de la date de floraison en réponse à la photopériode, rechercher des QTL (Quantitative Trait Locus) de date de floraison dans trois populations connectées de lignées recombinantes, réaliser une méta-analyse QTL afin de détecter les régions conservées dans le contrôle du caractère entre populations, cartographier finement un QTL majeur et repérer les gènes candidats présents dans son intervalle de confiance. L'expression de ces gènes a été comparée pour deux lignées afin d'associer au caractère les gènes différentiellement exprimés. En chambre de culture, la date de floraison de huit lignées a été mesurée sous deux traitements : 12 heures et 18 heures d'éclairement. Les données montrent qu'il existe de la variabilité génétique pour la date de floraison entre ces huit lignées, que la floraison est plus précoce en jours longs qu'en jours courts et qu'il existe une interaction lignée x photopériode. Un QTL majeur de date de floraison a pu être repéré sur le groupe de liaison 7 dans les trois populations de lignées recombinantes expliquant de 10 à 60 % de la variabilité observée. En méta-analyse sur les trois populations, un QTL consensus a été mis en évidence ayant un intervalle de confiance de seulement 0.9 cM. La cartographie fine de ce QTL a été réalisée sur la descendance (1663 plantes) d'une plante F6 hétérozygote au QTL détecté dans la population LR4. L'intervalle du QTL ainsi détecté couvre 2.4 cM. Six gènes homologues de gènes de floraison décrits chez A. thaliana ont été identifiés dans l'intervalle de ce QTL établi par cartographie fine. Leur séquençage pleine longueur a révélé du polymorphisme entre les deux parents : pour MtCO, homologue de CONSTANS et pour MtFTLc, homologue de FT. Par contre, aucun polymorphisme n'a été détecté pour deux autres homologues de FT (MtFTLa et MtFTLb) ni pour PKS. Une analyse de l'expression différentielle par RT-PCR semi quantitative des six gènes candidats a été réalisée chez deux lignées parentales contrastées pour leur date de floraison. Seul le gène MtCO est différentiellement exprimé entre ces deux lignées ; ce gène est donc actuellement le principal candidat pour expliquer la variation du caractère révélée à ce QTL sur le chromosome7, dans ces populations.