Background: 'Neuromarketing' is a term that has often been used in the media in recent years. These public discussions have generally centered around potential ethical aspects and the public fear of negative consequences for society in general, and consumers in particular. However, positive contributions to the scientific discourse from developing a biological model that tries to explain context-situated human behavior such as consumption have often been neglected. We argue for a differentiated terminology, naming commercial applications of neuroscientific methods 'neuromarketing' and scientific ones 'consumer neuroscience'. While marketing scholars have eagerly integrated neuroscientific evidence into their theoretical framework, neurology has only recently started to draw its attention to the results of consumer neuroscience. Discussion: In this paper we address key research topics of consumer neuroscience that we think are of interest for neurologists; namely the reward system, trust and ethical issues. We argue that there are overlapping research topics in neurology and consumer neuroscience where both sides can profit from collaboration. Further, neurologists joining the public discussion of ethical issues surrounding neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience could contribute standards and experience gained in clinical research. Summary: We identify the following areas where consumer neuroscience could contribute to the field of neurology: First, studies using game paradigms could help to gain further insights into the underlying pathophysiology of pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease, frontotemporal dementia, epilepsy, and Huntington's disease. Second, we identify compulsive buying as a common interest in neurology and consumer neuroscience. Paradigms commonly used in consumer neuroscience could be applied to patients suffering from Parkinson's disease and frontotemporal dementia to advance knowledge of this important behavioral symptom. Third, trust research in the medical context lacks empirical behavioral and neuroscientific evidence. Neurologists entering this field of research could profit from the extensive knowledge of the biological foundation of trust that scientists in economically-orientated neurosciences have gained. Fourth, neurologists could contribute significantly to the ethical debate about invasive methods in neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience. Further, neurologists should investigate biological and behavioral reactions of neurological patients to marketing and advertising measures, as they could show special consumer vulnerability and be subject to target marketing. (authors' abstract)

This is the first study that exclusively focuses on gaining knowledge of the vast opportunities that Neuroscientific pricing research offers for marketing purposes. The findings of this study provide evidence of the importance to improve customer and organizational decision making. The findings further highlight the crucial importance of Neuroscientific pricing research. Moreover, evidence is provided that fundamental and well formulated models and concepts need to be developed in the discipline of Neuroscientific pricing research. Neuroscientific pricing research can improve the understanding and the use of pricing by validating and developing existing pricing theories that are largely behavioural or standard economic in nature and build on unrealistic assumptions such as perfect information, profit maximization and rational choices. (Pratt, 1964; Lucas, 1971; Friedman, 1976; Stigler, 1987; Rappaport, 1996; Caplin & Dean, 2009, p. 24) Rao and Kartono (2009, p. 9) explain that "our understanding of pricing processes is still in its infancy". Moreover, Neuroscientific pricing research has been sporadically published. (Knutson, Fong, Adams, Varner, & Hommer, 2001; Knutson, Rick, Wimmer, Prelec, & Loewenstein, 2007; Plassmann, O'Doherty, Shiv, & Rangel, 2008) So far, pricing research has incorporated advancements in game theory and microeconomics, behavioural decision theory, psychological and social dimensions and newer market mechanisms of auctions over the last decades. (Rao, 2009, p. 1) Bijmolt et al. (2005) highlights that pricing research has implications for how we understand information processing in any decision context where resources and information are scarce and costs must be weighed against benefits. Moreover, Neuroscientific pricing- branding- and design research will offer organizations a unique range of tools and abundant opportunities to gain and sustain a competitive advantage and to improve customer value and profitability. Innovative industry leading companies, governments and civil society organizations should debate whether they can afford to not to be part of developing Neuroscientific research mainly for the reasons of control and power.

Oggi le aziende riconoscono come i comportamenti d’acquisto del cliente siano influenzati dall’atmosfera del mondo retail. Le caratteristiche del punto vendita e le sue potenzialità multisensoriali rappresentano una componente fondamentale capace di influenzare il processo di scelta del consumatore da un punto di vista cognitivo ma soprattutto emotivo. Il presente lavoro di tesi propone un’indagine interdisciplinare con l’intenzione di analizzare la figura del consumatore in diversi contesti d’acquisto. Il macro-obiettivo è verificare l’impatto percettivo, cognitivo ed emotivo per comprendere come lo spazio influenzi i processi decisionali di acquisto e come gli elementi contestuali e architettonici ne favoriscano la fruizione. Gli store non sono più considerati semplici luoghi dove acquistare un prodotto ma ambienti in grado di regalare un’esperienza emozionante. L’uso di differenti strumenti d’indagine ha permesso di analizzare le risposte implicite (con l’utilizzo di strumenti neuroscientifici) ed esplicite (grazie all’uso di strumenti tradizionali di psicologia quali questionari e interviste) per avere una visione globale della percezione e delle emozioni del consumatore all’interno di un contesto d’acquisto. Diversamente delle altre ricerche di Consumer Neuroscience fino ad ora esistenti, il lavoro proposto si discosta dalle dinamiche puramente di laboratorio per studiare il cliente all’interno del punto vendita preservando così un ambiente ecologico. / Nowadays the companies are aware that the consumer’s buying behavior is influenced by the atmosphere of the retail world. The features of point of sale and its multi-sensory potential are important components which influence cognitively and emotively the consumer choice process. The present thesis aims to present an interdisciplinary research with the intention to analyze the consumer in different sales contexts. The macro-objective is to verify the perceptive, cognitive and emotional impact to understand how the space influences decision-making process and how the contextual and architectural elements encourage its fruition. Stores are no longer considered as simple places to buy a product but environments able to give an emotional experience. The use of different tools allowed us to analyze implicit responses (with neuroscientific tools) and explicit responses (thanks to the use of traditional tools of psychology such as questionnaires and interviews) to have a global view of consumer perception and emotion within the sales context. Unlike other consumer neuroscience research, this work was done outside of laboratory to study the consumer in point of sale and preserving an ecological environment.

This dissertation examines the emerging practice of consumer neuroscience and neuromarketing, combined called CNNM. CNNM utilizes tools and technologies to measure brain activity and human behavior coupled with scientific theories for explaining behavior and cognition. Consumer neuroscience is one of the newest areas of application of neuroscience and related techniques, and is of significant social consequence for its possible deployment in the market place to both study and shape consumer behavior. Concerns arise in terms of consumer influence and manipulation, but there are also concerns regarding the actual efficacy and utility of the technologies and the application of behavioral theories. The dissertation's three essays each examine a facet of CNNM. Using historical sources, conference participation, and ethical analyses, the dissertation forms a multi-prong effort at a better understanding of CNNM through the use of science and technology studies (STS) methods. The first essay is an historical review of the usage of technologies to measure brain activity and behavior, parallel to the development of psychological theories created to account for human decisionmaking. This essay presents a new conception of "closure" and "momentum" as envisioned by social construction of technology and technological momentum theories, arriving at a new concept for inclusion called "convergence" which offers a multi-factor explanation for the acceptance and technical implementation of unsettled science. The second essay analyzes four discourses discovered during the review of approximately seventy presentations and interviews given by experts in the field of CNNM. Using and adapting actor-network theory, the essay seeks to describe the creation of expertise and group formation in the field of CNNM researchers. The third essay draws on a variety of ethical analyses to expand understanding of the ethical concerns regarding CNNM. It raises questions that go beyond the actual efficacy of CNNM by applying some of the theories of Michel Foucault relating to the accumulation of power via expertise. This essay also points in the direction for actionable steps at ameliorating some of the ethical concerns involving CNNM. CNNM is a useful technique for understanding consumer behavior and, by extension, human behavior and neuroscience more generally. At the same time, it has been routinely misunderstood and occasionally vilified (for concerns about both efficacy and non-efficacy). This dissertation develops some of the specific historical movements that created the field, surveys and analyzes some of the foremost experts and how they maneuvered in their social network to achieve that status, and identifies novel ethical issues and some solutions to those ethical issues. / Ph. D. / Consumer neuroscience, or neuromarketing, (CNNM) is a new and emerging field which uses different devices to measure brain activity and behavior. For many years, scientists and marketers have been seeking to understand and explain decisions and, more specifically, consumer decisions. It has only been in the most recent decades that technology and scientific theories have been working in a close fashion to help understand human decision and consumer behavior. In three essays, this dissertation uses tools from science and technology studies (STS) to better understand CNNM. In Essay One, I track the parallel history of the technologies to measure brain activity and behavior with scientific theories put forward to explain them. In Essay Two, I analyze the content of presentations given by experts in the field to understand how CNNM expertise is formed. In Essay Three, I explore the ethical concerns and propose some new ways of solving some of the ethical problems (such as power, influence, and expertise.) CNNM is an important social phenomenon because of its possibilities of helping marketers, but it is also important for its part in developing areas of technology and scientific theories. The dissertation represents some new approaches at helping to understand its complexities and consequences.

Profundas transformações têm impactado não somente os processos interacionais e comunicacionais como, também, a forma de se fazer pesquisa em comunicação. Tal busca por um maior entendimento passa pela dinâmica científica e seus métodos no campo da comunicação. O avanço das metodologias mais ligadas à neurociência e suas aplicações em outras áreas do conhecimento, incluindo a comunicação, fez emergir um crescente interesse por pesquisadores do campo. Entretanto, a contribuição efetiva de tais metodologias, como a aferição no nível condutância de pele e o rastreamento ocular (eye tracking) ainda não é devidamente clara. A presente pesquisa tem como objetivo aprofundar o diálogo interdisciplinar entre os campos da comunicação e neurociência, no que se refere ao emprego combinado das metodologias do eye tracking e de condutância de pele, a fim de se identificar possíveis contribuições e limitações dos métodos para a comunicação. Para tanto, foi conduzido um experimento com 46 universitários homens e mulheres, que tiveram seus dados de rastreamento ocular e nível de condutância de pele aferidos enquanto observavam um dos três tipos de abordagem (frame) em campanhas de segurança no trânsito (neutra, positiva e negativa). Os dados foram, então, analisados de forma quantitativa e qualitativa, e comparados com avaliações atitudinais autodeclaradas pelos participantes. Como principais resultados, houve diferenças entre três as abordagens consoante a forma e métrica de avaliação, sugerindo que a escolha por determinada forma de análise exerce um considerável efeito sobre os resultados. As considerações finais indicam que, apesar de apresentarem limitações, o eye tracking e a condutância de pele constituem métodos importantes e complementares às formas tradicionais de pesquisa em comunicação, ao conferirem uma maior objetividade e comparabilidade de informações relativas a aspectos atencionais e emocionais de conteúdos comunicacionais persuasivos. / Deep transformations have impacted not only on interactional and communication processes but also on the way of conducting research in communication. This search for a greater understanding goes through the scientific dynamics and its methods in the field of communication. The advancement of methodologies closely related to neuroscience and its applications in other areas of knowledge including applied social sciences - communication, has given rise to a growing interest by researchers in the field. However, the effective contribution of such methodologies, e.g. the measurement of the level of skin conductance and eye tracking, is not yet properly clear. The present research aims at deepening the interdisciplinary dialogue between the fields of communication and neuroscience regarding the combined use of the methodologies of eye tracking and skin conductance to identify possible contributions and limitations of methods for communication. In order to do so, an experiment was conducted with 46 male and female university students, who had their eye tracking data and skin conductance level collected while observing one of the three types of approach in traffic safety campaigns (neutral, positive and negative). The data were then analyzed in a quantitative and qualitative manner and compared with self-reported attitudinal answers by the participants. As the main results, there were differences between three approaches depending on the form and metric of evaluation, suggesting that the choice for a particular form of analysis exerts a considerable effect on the results. The final considerations indicate that despite limitations eye tracking and skin conductance are important and complementary methods to traditional forms of communication research, by providing greater objectivity and comparability of information regarding the attentional and emotional aspects of persuasive communication contents.

Is it more effective to evoke negative emotions in social advertisements than positive emotions? This study compared positive and negative message framing strategies in social marketing advertisements that aimed to encourage a reduction in meat consumption. This project explored how each strategy influences consumers' attitudes toward the recommended behaviour and investigated the role of emotional and attentional responses to each message framing strategy. The purpose of this research was to determine whether negatively framed messages are more effective than positively framed messages in influencing consumers' attitudes, emotions, and attention. The motivation of the study was to provide formative research for the design of social marketing interventions to effectively influence consumers' attitudes towards advertised causes with the use of message framing, and to advance theoretical understanding of how consumers respond to social marketing interventions. Furthermore, this research attempted to resolve differences between results obtained in previous framing research in the social marketing context. This study uniquely proposed the use of cutting-edge consumer neuroscience techniques to develop a clearer understanding of consumers' emotional and attentional responses to social marketing advertisements. The results were presented from a mixed-method approach, which combined quantitative and qualitative research methods. An experiment was conducted by using two social marketing print advertisements aimed at encouraging a reduction in meat consumption, by highlighting the impact of consuming meat products on animal welfare. Respondents involved in the experiment viewed an advertisement that was either positively framed or negatively framed. The research applied self-reporting methods, as well as consumer neuroscience methods, including facial coding, galvanic skin response (GSR), and eye-tracking, to explore the proposed research framework. The combination of these methods allowed the collection of data on attitudinal, emotional, and attentional responses. The results of this research demonstrated that negatively framed advertisements are more effective in changing consumers' attitudes towards reducing meat consumption than positively framed advertisements. Thus, messages aimed at encouraging a reduction in consumption should highlight the negative consequences of participating in certain behaviours. Neither emotion nor attention were found to mediate the relationship between message framing and attitude. However, positively framed advertisements elicit significantly higher levels of emotional valence; and negatively framed advertisements elicit significantly higher levels of disgust and attention. Social marketers should, therefore, leverage these feelings of disgust; and they should implement negative framing strategies to increase the attention paid to an advertisement. However, educational social marketing interventions should be considered, in combination with negative message framing, to effectively influence consumers' attitudes towards social issues. These findings have provided research for better developing message framing strategies for the communication of sustainable consumption. Furthermore, these strategies contributed to the existing social marketing literature by addressing the lack of information on marketing efforts aimed at reducing meat consumption. This research also filled important gaps in the literature regarding positive versus negative message framing strategies, and social marketing interventions can now be implemented with an increased understanding of how consumers respond to different message framing strategies.

L'autorégulation est une ressource essentielle pour ne pas succomber à la tentation de consommer des aliments fortement caloriques. Elle demande de la volonté et de contrôler ses émotions et sensations. Cependant, nous évoluons dans un environnement valorisant le plaisir alimentaire où les informations de santé sont mal prises en compte, entrainant des difficultés d'autorégulation. Ces difficultés se retrouvent notamment chez les personnes en surpoids et/ou au régime. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que valoriser le goût des aliments sains pourrait aider ces personnes à s'autoréguler et nous avons conduit deux expériences pour la tester. Dans la première, les messages basés sur le plaisir de consommer des fruits et légumes se sont avérés plus persuasifs pour ces individus. De la même manière, dans la seconde étude lors de la prise de décision simuler le plaisir procuré par ces aliments augmente davantage le choix d'aliments sains pour ces individus. Par le recours à la neuro-imagerie fonctionnelle, nous montrons également des différences significatives d'activité cérébrale entre ces individus au moment du choix d'aliments sains dans cette condition. Il apparaît plus impulsif chez les sujets les plus sensibles à la récompense, se rapprochant du choix d'aliments fortement caloriques. Au contraire, il apparaît plus réfléchi chez les sujets ayant un IMC élevé, facilitant ainsi l'autorégulation. Au niveau théorique, cette recherche met en avant le rôle positif des émotions et sensations liées au plaisir dans l'autorégulation. Au niveau managérial, elle suggère l'importance d'adapter les stratégies de promotion des aliments sains au public ciblé. / Self-regulation is an essential resource for not succumbing to (junk) food. It requires willpower and control of emotions and sensations. However, individuals operate in an environment enhancing food pleasure where health informations are few and poorly considered, causing difficulties in self-regulation. These difficulties are found especially in overweight people and/or dieter. We hypothesized that value the taste of healthy foods could help people to self-regulate and we conducted two experiments to test it. In the first study, messages highlighting the pleasure of eating fruits and vegetables are more persuasive to subjects taking risks to health. Similarly, in the second study in decision making, focusing on the tatste of these foods increases more healthy food choices for these subjects. By using neuroimaging, we have shown brain activity distinctions between these subjects when choosing healthy food in this condition. Choosing healthy food is more impulsive for the most sensitive to reward subjects, approaching the choice of junk foods. Instead, it appears more reflective for subjects with a high BMI and choosing more junk foods, facilitating self-regulation. At the theoretical level this research highlights the positive role of emotions and sensations related to pleasure in self-regulation. At the managerial level, it suggests the importance of adapting strategies to the target audience in order to efficiently healthy food consumption.