The notion of normality in families is socially constructed. In fact, so-called traditional families represent only 3% of households in the United States. The presence of dissimilarity in families has given rise to a deficit model, where families constructed outside of the norm are recognized as vulnerable to problems and likely candidates for intervention. At the same time, mental health practitioners indicate feeling unequipped to address the concerns of these families. Rather than assume nontraditional families are destined for maladaptive outcomes, research must investigate how family members address differences to produce strong, high functioning families. As such, the purpose of this qualitative investigation was to a) identify what transracially adopted individuals think and feel about their own race and the race of their parents/other adoptive family members, b) understand how racial differences are addressed in families formed through transracial adoption, and c) elucidate how transracially adopted individuals are affected (in childhood and adulthood) by ways in which their parents address or do not address issues of race with them. Data was collected through 13 semi-structured interviews with adults of color who were transracially adopted by White parents. Participant narratives were transcribed and then analyzed using Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR). Results illustrate the complexity of identity formation and parent/child relationships in the lives of transracial adoptees. Racial messages received from family members and communities are identified, including themes of colorblindness, racial discrimination, and having no sense of belonging. Participants described various ways in which they dealt with race-related messages on their own, through methods of isolation and avoidance. They also discussed negative emotional responses to race-related encounters, such as confusion, anger, and anxiety. Participants' experiences of their own racial identity, as well as their relationship to their birth race and culture, are described. Suggestions for prospective White transracial adoptive parents are made, including the importance of incorporating adoptees' birth race and culture within family life. Finally, implications for mental health practitioners working with transracial adoptive families, limitations, and suggestions for future research are provided.

The majority of empirical work regarding the phenomenon of work-family conflict has focused on the experiences of White, middle-class, professional women. While Latinos represent the fastest growing segment of workers in the U.S. labor force, and professional employment the fastest growing segment of occupation type, the experiences of professional Latinas, for whom the dominant cultural values may not be salient, remains largely unexplored. The influence of cultural context variables on experiences of work-family conflict has yet to be understood. The present study surveyed 203 professional Latinas with children. It was expected that Latino cultural values (i.e., collectivism, familism) and traditional gender role attitudes (i.e., marianismo) would have both a main effect on levels of work-family conflict and a moderating effect on the relationship between job and family stressors and work-family conflict, such that the relationship between both kinds of stressors and the two forms of conflict (i.e. work-family conflict; family-work conflict) would be stronger for those participants who also endorsed greater levels of individualism and familism, and for those who adhered to more traditional gender role attitudes and who experienced greater conflict in relation to their gender role attitudes. As expected, hierarchical multiple regressions revealed significant main effects for job and family stressors and individualism on levels of work-family conflict. Contrary to the hypotheses, no main effects were found for collectivism, familism, or gender role attitudes. Also as expected, results indicated that collectivism appeared to moderate the relationship between family stressors and family-work conflict and familism moderated the relationships between job and family stressors and work-family conflict. Contrary to hypothesized relationships, results did not reveal a significant moderating effect for gender role attitudes. However, as predicted , the level of conflict that participants reported experiencing in regards to their gender role attitudes did appear to significantly moderate the relationship between job and family stressors and work-family conflict, such that these relationships were stronger for those participants who endorsed high levels of conflict about their gender role attitudes. Implications of these findings for future research, training, and practice were discussed.

A century of psychological research exists on the impact of unemployment on individuals. However, missing from the literature is a consideration of the social context of unemployed persons and the ways in which persons cope with their unemployment. This study sought to examine the experiences of unemployed persons in poverty, poverty being a social context frequently ignored in psychological literature. In addition, the study aimed to explore the psychological impact of these experiences, the strategies used by the poor to cope, and the appraised effectiveness of coping strategies. Participants were 21 unemployed adults living in poverty. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed using Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) methodology. Fifteen domains emerged from the CQR analysis to show that unemployed poverty is an experience of widespread disruption to daily, social, and family life. Financial hardship and social isolation were commonplace and financial hardship was expressed to be the most stressful of experiences. Participants associated a range of emotions with their unemployment including sadness, hopelessness, anger, and a sense of low self-regard. However, a variety of emotion-focused, problem-focused, and religious coping strategies were utilized to cope. Religious coping and reliance on community resources that were empowering were reported to be the most effective coping strategies. Secondary analysis was conducted by examining the frequencies of categories by gender. Women more frequently reported financial hardship and were more socially isolated than men. Additionally, women more frequently reported sadness and hopelessness. The results are discussed with consideration to socio-political context of poverty and recommendations made for clinical practice and future research.

Lesbians of color exemplify persons with multiple, marginalized identities. Scholars theorize that they are susceptible to racist, heterosexist, and sexist discrimination. Given the multiple pathways of discrimination, scholars postulate that lesbians of color are susceptible to adverse mental health outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorders, and decreased life satisfaction (Williams and Williams-Morris, 2000). However, most literature on lesbians of color and mental health is primarily theoretical or conceptual while empirical evidence is limited. Further, the scant literature on lesbians of color that exists primarily explore Black and/or Latina lesbians, while very little is known about the mental health of Asian American and Native American lesbians. The purpose of my research study was to explore how Asian American lesbians' mental health is affected by the convergence of multiple societal oppressions such as racism, heterosexism, and sexism (N=167). Additionally, I explored how both enculturation and unsupportive social interactions among Asian American lesbians moderates the relationship between mental health and perceived experiences with racism, heterosexism, sexism. Perceived experiences with racist, heterosexist, and sexist events were each measured by Asian American Racism-Related Stress Inventory (AARRSI; Liang, Li, and Kim, 2004), Heterosexist Harassment, Rejection, and Discrimination Scale (HHRD; Szymanski, 2006), and Schedule of Sexist Events (SSE; Klonoff and Landrine, 1995), respectively. To measure each moderator, level of enculturation and unsupportive social interactions, the study utilized Asian Values Scale (AVS; Kim et al., 1999) and Unsupportive Social Interactions Inventory (USII; Ingram, Betz, et al., 2001), respectively. Lastly, mental health outcomes were measured by Mental Health Inventory (MHI; Veit and Ware, 1983). Correlation analysis and multiple regression analyses evaluated the relationship among these variables. Results indicated that heterosexist events uniquely predicted mental health, unsupportive social interactions were predictive of mental health, and unsupportive social interactions significantly moderated the relationship between perceived experiences with racism and mental health. Limitations and implications future research and clinical practice are discussed.

According to the 2003 report of the Presidential Commission on Mental Health, it is vital that all Americans obtain an equal share in the best available mental health services and outcomes, irrespective of race, gender, ethnicity, or geographic location. The report suggests that services must be tailored to include culturally diverse populations and should also provide access to positive outcomes of care. While spirituality has been historically linked to Black Americans as a resource and buffer, the nature and role of its effectiveness still needs to be determined and explored. This study moves our understanding forward in terms of defining spirituality and its effect on healthy psychological functioning by exploring how spiritual beliefs can possibly bolster one's ability to cope with hardships. Understanding what factors in one's life can possibly improve psychological functioning is of particular significance at this time when so many challenges are disproportionately affecting the well-being of Black Americans. The search for resilience promoting factors must also be examined. Participants in this study were 362 Black individuals enrolled in undergraduate and graduate programs in colleges and universities who completed the Black Racial Identity Scale (BRIAS; Helms & Parham, 1985), the Spirituality Scale (SS; Jagers, Boykin, & Smith, 1997), the Africultural Coping Systems Inventory (ACSI) (Utsey et al., 2000), the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18; Derogatis, 2000), the Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWB; Ryff, 1989), and a personal data form. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that spirituality partially mediates the relationship between racial identity and psychological functioning. Furthermore, results support the historical notion that spirituality is an important instrument by which Blacks are able to deal with negative experiences. Implications for clinical practice and future considerations are discussed.

This study aimed to explore transnational racial consciousness among immigrants from the Dominican Republic. Racial consciousness is the process whereby the people develop awareness and understanding of social oppression (Freire, 1971; Quintana and Segura-Herrera, 2003, p. 274). Fifteen self-identified Dominican immigrants participated in semi-structured interviews, focused on their understandings of skin-color, racialization, racism, and group membership. A grounded theory design framed from a constructivist and critical social justice approach guided the analysis of the data. The theoretical framework that emerged from the analysis of the data suggests a core narrative of “negotiating contradicting cultural scripts” about race and racialization and “contradicting notions of self” from a racialized perspective. Participants shared experiences with racialization, colorism, and racism both in the Dominican Republic and in the United States, which heightened their awareness of issues of racial oppression. Additionally, they described a cultural socialization that emphasized deracialized cultural notions that avoid explicit reference to race-specific material. Contradicting messages existed at institutional, cultural, and interpersonal levels. Participants identified racial encounters in the context of social/interpersonal interactions. They elaborated on the meanings they have constructed in attempts to understand their varying and conflicting experiences with racialization. They also expressed complex emotional reactions triggered by experiences with discrimination and racism. Encounters with racism resulted in changes or shifts in consciousness for some participants. The importance of negotiating the contradictions that emerged in racialized interactions across social context implies that transnational racial consciousness is both interpersonal and intrapsychic for these participants. Suggestions for further research include continuing to examine the experiences of those who may be categorized as both Latino/a, as a result of language and culture, as well as Black, due to skin-color and descent. Implications for practice and training include a need for increased attention to the multiple locales and contexts in which immigrants are embedded. The transnational bonds, connections, and ties to systems of oppression that immigrants maintain need be explore in terms of the psychological processes these produce. Finally, expanding the role of psychologists and other mental health professionals, to more active agents of social justice at the local and transnational levels is also suggested.

Scholars suggest Black West Indian Americans' ethnocentric attitudes toward Black Americans have notable effects on the racial socialization and identity of American-born West Indian children. This study explored the associations between racial socialization, ethnocentric attitudes, and racial identity for second-generation West Indian Americans in the United States. This unique study adds to the limited racial socialization-racial identity literature for this growing ethnic population. It is also the first study of its kind to explore whether ethnocentric attitudes mediate the relationship between racial socialization experiences and racial identity attitudes. Furthermore, this study adds to the movement towards better analytic practices of measuring racial identity attitudes through the use of strength of endorsement profile analysis. Participants in this study included 151 youth and young adults, who completed a survey including a Socio-Demographic Sheet, the Teenager Experiences of Racial Socialization Scale (Stevenson, Cameron, Herrero-Taylor & Davis, 2002), the Image Scale-modified (Smith, 1990), and the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale-long form (Parham & Helms, 1996). A canonical correlation analysis established two unique shared variates between racial socialization and racial identity status attitudes. The first variate indicated racial pride themed socializations and a preparation for racial bias themed socialization were positively related to Internalization and Immersion-Emersion status attitudes and inversely related to Pre-encounter status attitudes. The second variate indicated that mistrust themed socialization was positively related to Immersion/Emersion, Encounter and Pre-encounter status attitudes. Regression analyses found significant relationships between pride-themed racial socialization and ethnocentric attitudes and between ethnocentric attitudes and Pre-encounter status attitudes for this population. However, there was no significant evidence that ethnocentric attitudes mediated the racial pride-themed socialization and Pre-encounter status attitude relation. MANOVAs with sample-generated racial identity attitude profile groups were also significant. Participants in three dominant profile groups, Pre-encounter, Immersion/Emersion, and Internalization, along with a "Flat" or Undifferentiated profile group, significantly differed in their reports of preparation for racial bias and racial pride socialization. This study's findings suggest that racial identity development for this population is multifaceted. Furthermore, it seems that second-generation West Indian Americans can maintain ethnocentric biased attitudes about Black Americans yet be aware of and connected to the political implications of being Black in America. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.

Despite their rapid growth, Latina/o Americans still experience disparities in most social, economic, employment, and educational spheres in American society. These include disparities in mental and physical health outcomes. Previous research makes a convincing argument for perceived discrimination being associated with these poor health outcomes. Scholars propose that the manifestation of discrimination has changed over the decades from a predominantly overt form to a more subtle, covert form, known as microaggression. Additionally, given the within-group differences inherent in this population, it is possible that various characteristics and psychological resources might influence the magnitude of experiences with microaggressions and health outcomes for Latina/o Americans. The present study investigated, 1) a specific type of discrimination, microaggressions, experienced by Latina/o Americans, and 2) the various within-group characteristics (skin color, Spanish language use, and accent) and psychological resources (ethnic identity and social support) that might inform health outcomes for Latina/o Americans. A path model, as well as moderation tests, explored these relationships with a sample of 328 Latina/o Americans. The results indicated support for the paths between accent and perceived microaggressions, as well as between perceived microaggressions and mental health outcomes. Additionally, the moderation tests indicated that social support moderated the relationship between perceived microaggressions and physical health outcomes. The results of the present study contribute to the literature on microaggressions by providing quantitative support for the harmful effects of microaggressions and expanding the knowledge base concerning various dynamics involved in the microaggression process for Latina/o Americans.

People have the tendency to rely on stereotypes while making judgments due to limitations of cognitive capacity. The shifting standards model suggests that people tend to use stereotypes as a standard when they make subjective judgments about members of stereotyped groups and that they unconsciously shift their standards based on stereotypes they hold for particular groups. Researchers have found that White therapists tend to shift their standards while making clinical judgment of their clients of Color. The majority of the research to date has focused on White therapists and Black clients, while the research on White therapists and Asian clients is scant. The current study investigated whether White psychology trainees shift standards in making subjective clinical judgment based on race and residency status of a fictitious White, Asian and Asian-American clients described in a vignette. The study also examined the potential relationships among White psychology trainees' level of self-reported Asian stereotype endorsement, multicultural counseling competence, and motivation to respond without prejudice and their impact on White trainees' initial clinical judgment. Participants included 439 (350 females, 89 males) White psychology trainees across the US. It was expected that White trainees would show less concern regarding symptom severity and a more optimistic prognosis for Asian target clients compared to a White target client. Furthermore, it was expected that White trainees would show less concern for symptom severity and a more optimistic prognosis for an Asian international student target compared to an Asian American target client. Results of an ANOVA revealed that White trainees did show less concern for symptom severity and more optimistic prognosis for an Asian international target client compared to a White target client. However, the results showed no difference between the ratings of symptom severity and prognosis for an Asian international student versus an Asian American student target client. For ratings of prognosis, regression analyses identified interaction effects between target client race and Asian competence stereotype endorsement, and also between target client race and participants' age. For ratings of symptom severity, no interaction effects were found. However for White trainees who responded to Asian international student target client there was a main effect for multicultural awareness on ratings of symptom severity. Similarly, for White trainees who responded to the Asian American target client vignette, main effects were found for multicultural awareness and Asian competence stereotype endorsement on ratings of symptom severity.

The present study aimed to examine factors influencing attitudes towards rape victims among a sample of Latinos (N=312) and Latinas (N=427). The predictive role of gender role attitudes was the overarching factor of interest. The study utilized the constructs of machismo/caballerismo and marianismo in efforts to capture the most culturally-relevant understanding and manifestation of gender role attitudes for the population of interest. Machismo/caballerismo and marianismo are largely ignored in empirical research but quite prevalent in Latino theoretical literature. The study also aimed to investigate the applicability of acculturation, a variable commonly included in Latino research but overlooked in rape research. The primary hypotheses tested in the study were whether the gender role attitudes of men and women would predict negative attitudes towards rape victims. It was proposed that higher levels of traditional gender role attitudes (i.e., machismo for males and marianismo for females) would predict higher levels of negative attitudes towards rape victims. Conversely, higher levels of caballerismo (i.e., less traditional male gender role attitudes) would predict lower levels of negative attitudes towards rape victims. Analyses revealed that gender role attitudes did not predict attitudes towards rape victims for either females or males in the sample. Among the female sample, social desirability was the only variable that significantly predicted attitudes towards rape victims. Among the male sample, socioeconomic status was found to be the only significant predictor of attitudes towards rape victims. Secondary hypotheses posited that degree of acculturation would affect the strength of the relationship between gender role attitudes and attitudes towards rape victims. This proposed moderating relationship was not tested as there was no significant relationship between the gender role and attitudes towards rape victims variables.