According to the 2003 report of the Presidential Commission on Mental Health, it is vital that all Americans obtain an equal share in the best available mental health services and outcomes, irrespective of race, gender, ethnicity, or geographic location. The report suggests that services must be tailored to include culturally diverse populations and should also provide access to positive outcomes of care. While spirituality has been historically linked to Black Americans as a resource and buffer, the nature and role of its effectiveness still needs to be determined and explored. This study moves our understanding forward in terms of defining spirituality and its effect on healthy psychological functioning by exploring how spiritual beliefs can possibly bolster one's ability to cope with hardships. Understanding what factors in one's life can possibly improve psychological functioning is of particular significance at this time when so many challenges are disproportionately affecting the well-being of Black Americans. The search for resilience promoting factors must also be examined. Participants in this study were 362 Black individuals enrolled in undergraduate and graduate programs in colleges and universities who completed the Black Racial Identity Scale (BRIAS; Helms & Parham, 1985), the Spirituality Scale (SS; Jagers, Boykin, & Smith, 1997), the Africultural Coping Systems Inventory (ACSI) (Utsey et al., 2000), the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18; Derogatis, 2000), the Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWB; Ryff, 1989), and a personal data form. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that spirituality partially mediates the relationship between racial identity and psychological functioning. Furthermore, results support the historical notion that spirituality is an important instrument by which Blacks are able to deal with negative experiences. Implications for clinical practice and future considerations are discussed.

This study aimed to explore transnational racial consciousness among immigrants from the Dominican Republic. Racial consciousness is the process whereby the people develop awareness and understanding of social oppression (Freire, 1971; Quintana and Segura-Herrera, 2003, p. 274). Fifteen self-identified Dominican immigrants participated in semi-structured interviews, focused on their understandings of skin-color, racialization, racism, and group membership. A grounded theory design framed from a constructivist and critical social justice approach guided the analysis of the data. The theoretical framework that emerged from the analysis of the data suggests a core narrative of “negotiating contradicting cultural scripts” about race and racialization and “contradicting notions of self” from a racialized perspective. Participants shared experiences with racialization, colorism, and racism both in the Dominican Republic and in the United States, which heightened their awareness of issues of racial oppression. Additionally, they described a cultural socialization that emphasized deracialized cultural notions that avoid explicit reference to race-specific material. Contradicting messages existed at institutional, cultural, and interpersonal levels. Participants identified racial encounters in the context of social/interpersonal interactions. They elaborated on the meanings they have constructed in attempts to understand their varying and conflicting experiences with racialization. They also expressed complex emotional reactions triggered by experiences with discrimination and racism. Encounters with racism resulted in changes or shifts in consciousness for some participants. The importance of negotiating the contradictions that emerged in racialized interactions across social context implies that transnational racial consciousness is both interpersonal and intrapsychic for these participants. Suggestions for further research include continuing to examine the experiences of those who may be categorized as both Latino/a, as a result of language and culture, as well as Black, due to skin-color and descent. Implications for practice and training include a need for increased attention to the multiple locales and contexts in which immigrants are embedded. The transnational bonds, connections, and ties to systems of oppression that immigrants maintain need be explore in terms of the psychological processes these produce. Finally, expanding the role of psychologists and other mental health professionals, to more active agents of social justice at the local and transnational levels is also suggested.

Scholars suggest Black West Indian Americans' ethnocentric attitudes toward Black Americans have notable effects on the racial socialization and identity of American-born West Indian children. This study explored the associations between racial socialization, ethnocentric attitudes, and racial identity for second-generation West Indian Americans in the United States. This unique study adds to the limited racial socialization-racial identity literature for this growing ethnic population. It is also the first study of its kind to explore whether ethnocentric attitudes mediate the relationship between racial socialization experiences and racial identity attitudes. Furthermore, this study adds to the movement towards better analytic practices of measuring racial identity attitudes through the use of strength of endorsement profile analysis. Participants in this study included 151 youth and young adults, who completed a survey including a Socio-Demographic Sheet, the Teenager Experiences of Racial Socialization Scale (Stevenson, Cameron, Herrero-Taylor & Davis, 2002), the Image Scale-modified (Smith, 1990), and the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale-long form (Parham & Helms, 1996). A canonical correlation analysis established two unique shared variates between racial socialization and racial identity status attitudes. The first variate indicated racial pride themed socializations and a preparation for racial bias themed socialization were positively related to Internalization and Immersion-Emersion status attitudes and inversely related to Pre-encounter status attitudes. The second variate indicated that mistrust themed socialization was positively related to Immersion/Emersion, Encounter and Pre-encounter status attitudes. Regression analyses found significant relationships between pride-themed racial socialization and ethnocentric attitudes and between ethnocentric attitudes and Pre-encounter status attitudes for this population. However, there was no significant evidence that ethnocentric attitudes mediated the racial pride-themed socialization and Pre-encounter status attitude relation. MANOVAs with sample-generated racial identity attitude profile groups were also significant. Participants in three dominant profile groups, Pre-encounter, Immersion/Emersion, and Internalization, along with a "Flat" or Undifferentiated profile group, significantly differed in their reports of preparation for racial bias and racial pride socialization. This study's findings suggest that racial identity development for this population is multifaceted. Furthermore, it seems that second-generation West Indian Americans can maintain ethnocentric biased attitudes about Black Americans yet be aware of and connected to the political implications of being Black in America. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.

Despite their rapid growth, Latina/o Americans still experience disparities in most social, economic, employment, and educational spheres in American society. These include disparities in mental and physical health outcomes. Previous research makes a convincing argument for perceived discrimination being associated with these poor health outcomes. Scholars propose that the manifestation of discrimination has changed over the decades from a predominantly overt form to a more subtle, covert form, known as microaggression. Additionally, given the within-group differences inherent in this population, it is possible that various characteristics and psychological resources might influence the magnitude of experiences with microaggressions and health outcomes for Latina/o Americans. The present study investigated, 1) a specific type of discrimination, microaggressions, experienced by Latina/o Americans, and 2) the various within-group characteristics (skin color, Spanish language use, and accent) and psychological resources (ethnic identity and social support) that might inform health outcomes for Latina/o Americans. A path model, as well as moderation tests, explored these relationships with a sample of 328 Latina/o Americans. The results indicated support for the paths between accent and perceived microaggressions, as well as between perceived microaggressions and mental health outcomes. Additionally, the moderation tests indicated that social support moderated the relationship between perceived microaggressions and physical health outcomes. The results of the present study contribute to the literature on microaggressions by providing quantitative support for the harmful effects of microaggressions and expanding the knowledge base concerning various dynamics involved in the microaggression process for Latina/o Americans.

People have the tendency to rely on stereotypes while making judgments due to limitations of cognitive capacity. The shifting standards model suggests that people tend to use stereotypes as a standard when they make subjective judgments about members of stereotyped groups and that they unconsciously shift their standards based on stereotypes they hold for particular groups. Researchers have found that White therapists tend to shift their standards while making clinical judgment of their clients of Color. The majority of the research to date has focused on White therapists and Black clients, while the research on White therapists and Asian clients is scant. The current study investigated whether White psychology trainees shift standards in making subjective clinical judgment based on race and residency status of a fictitious White, Asian and Asian-American clients described in a vignette. The study also examined the potential relationships among White psychology trainees' level of self-reported Asian stereotype endorsement, multicultural counseling competence, and motivation to respond without prejudice and their impact on White trainees' initial clinical judgment. Participants included 439 (350 females, 89 males) White psychology trainees across the US. It was expected that White trainees would show less concern regarding symptom severity and a more optimistic prognosis for Asian target clients compared to a White target client. Furthermore, it was expected that White trainees would show less concern for symptom severity and a more optimistic prognosis for an Asian international student target compared to an Asian American target client. Results of an ANOVA revealed that White trainees did show less concern for symptom severity and more optimistic prognosis for an Asian international target client compared to a White target client. However, the results showed no difference between the ratings of symptom severity and prognosis for an Asian international student versus an Asian American student target client. For ratings of prognosis, regression analyses identified interaction effects between target client race and Asian competence stereotype endorsement, and also between target client race and participants' age. For ratings of symptom severity, no interaction effects were found. However for White trainees who responded to Asian international student target client there was a main effect for multicultural awareness on ratings of symptom severity. Similarly, for White trainees who responded to the Asian American target client vignette, main effects were found for multicultural awareness and Asian competence stereotype endorsement on ratings of symptom severity.

The present study aimed to examine factors influencing attitudes towards rape victims among a sample of Latinos (N=312) and Latinas (N=427). The predictive role of gender role attitudes was the overarching factor of interest. The study utilized the constructs of machismo/caballerismo and marianismo in efforts to capture the most culturally-relevant understanding and manifestation of gender role attitudes for the population of interest. Machismo/caballerismo and marianismo are largely ignored in empirical research but quite prevalent in Latino theoretical literature. The study also aimed to investigate the applicability of acculturation, a variable commonly included in Latino research but overlooked in rape research. The primary hypotheses tested in the study were whether the gender role attitudes of men and women would predict negative attitudes towards rape victims. It was proposed that higher levels of traditional gender role attitudes (i.e., machismo for males and marianismo for females) would predict higher levels of negative attitudes towards rape victims. Conversely, higher levels of caballerismo (i.e., less traditional male gender role attitudes) would predict lower levels of negative attitudes towards rape victims. Analyses revealed that gender role attitudes did not predict attitudes towards rape victims for either females or males in the sample. Among the female sample, social desirability was the only variable that significantly predicted attitudes towards rape victims. Among the male sample, socioeconomic status was found to be the only significant predictor of attitudes towards rape victims. Secondary hypotheses posited that degree of acculturation would affect the strength of the relationship between gender role attitudes and attitudes towards rape victims. This proposed moderating relationship was not tested as there was no significant relationship between the gender role and attitudes towards rape victims variables.

Italian-Americans constitute 6% of the American population (Census, 2010). Although they are part of the White majority, they have a unique cultural experience, as they endorse ethnic values that differ from other White Americans. It has been noted that adherence to these values may impact the way Italian-Americans view mental health treatment. In an attempt to understand this dynamic, the present study investigated the impact of ethnic identity, acculturation, aspects of socioeconomic status, and collective self esteem on attitudes towards counseling for a sample of 242 self-identified Italian-Americans. It was hypothesized that acculturation would mediate the relationship between ethnic identity, collective self-esteem, and attitudes towards counseling. It was also hypothesized that aspects of socioeconomic status would moderate the relationship between ethnic identity and collective self-esteem and attitudes towards counseling. Hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to test these hypothesized models; however, findings were not significant. Preliminary analysis revealed that age and gender were significantly predictive of attitudes towards counseling. Furthermore, exploratory analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between public collective self-esteem and aspects of socioeconomic status to attitudes towards counseling for this sample. These findings have implications for training, research, and practice for mental health professionals.

This investigation explored how poor and working-class people experience, understand, and negotiate class issues and class differences with their therapists. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 22 self-identified poor and working-class people with experience as clients in individual counseling. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using constructivist grounded theory methodology (Charmaz, 2006). A core narrative emerged that depicted a dynamic, interactional process of seeking mutual understanding to navigate class issues in therapy. Participants played an active role in this process by making decisions to share or withhold information or their reactions to therapy experiences. Participants' sociocultural awareness provided the context for their observations of class cues and perceptions of therapists' social class, which in turn influenced their reactions and behaviors towards their therapist. Seeking mutual understanding emerged as a process that allowed poor and working-class clients to build connections with therapists of shared and different social class backgrounds. Participants shared positive, meaningful interactions with therapists who demonstrated genuineness and attended to class issues in the therapeutic encounter. When working with therapists who engaged in these mutuality-enhancing actions, participants felt deeply understood and connected to their therapists, which contributed to growthful therapeutic outcomes. Participants also described feeling misunderstood and disconnected from therapists who appeared inauthentic and neglected to attend to class issues. These participants reported feeling "stuck" and unhelped through counseling. The findings of this study suggest that social class issues are salient for poor and working-class clients in their interactions with therapists. Further, therapists can promote positive therapeutic outcomes in work with class-oppressed clients by a) fostering authenticity and mutuality within the working alliance and b) openly addressing clients' material concerns and thoughtfully exploring class differences and other class issues present in the therapeutic relationship. Additional implications for training and practice are provided and include the need for counselors to incorporate social justice advocacy into their work. Suggestions for future research include further exploration of the ways social class and classism operate within the psychotherapeutic process, emphasizing the need for researchers to attend to intersections of identity and position poor and working-class people's voices and perspectives at the center of their inquiry.

The field of psychology now minimally disputes that racism is a stressor that significantly impacts the emotional well-being of People of Color. However, this knowledge base has been largely built on data using Black American samples and less on other middle-of-the -spectrum racial groups. Psychological research has also shifted its focus to examine what underlying mechanisms help buffer the negative impact of racism. The current study aimed to expand the body of research on racism by examining the link between experiences of racial discrimination and psychological distress using a Latina/o adult sample. Also, the potential moderating and mediating role of skin color and racial identity status attitudes on the relationship between racial discrimination and psychological distress were examined because of influence these variables have on the racial socialization experiences of Latinas/os. Additional research questions in the current investigation examined the relationship between skin color and experiences of racial discrimination and skin color with racial identity status attitudes. Participants in the study were 491 adult Latinas/os who participated either online (n = 344) or using a paper-and-pencil (n = 147) version of the questionnaire packet that included the Perceived Racism Scale for Latinas/os (Collado-Proctor, 1999), the People of Color Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms, 1995), the Depression-Anxiety-Stress Scale (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995), the New Immigrant Survey Skin Color Scale (Massey and Martin, 2003), and a Personal Data Sheet. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that experiences of racial discrimination were positively associated with psychological distress. Results found no association between skin color and experiences of racial discrimination but a MANOVA found that "Medium/Brown" skinned participants were more likely to endorse Resistance status attitudes relative to "White" skinned Latinas/os. Lastly, results found no evidence of mediation but found evidence indicating that Dissonance status attitudes moderated the relationship between experiences of racial discrimination and anxiety as an indicator of psychological distress in ways that were theoretically consistent with racial identity theory (i.e., Dissonance status attitudes were positively associated with anxiety that was associated with experiences of racial discrimination). The findings expand the literature by further demonstrating that experiences of racial discrimination are experienced as a stressor among Latinas/os. The findings also reinforce the stance that psychological researches need to continue to examine how individual and group-related variables interact with experiences of racism that might buffer or enhance the impact of these experiences. Implications for clinical practice as well as future research are reviewed.

The present study describes the development and psychometric evaluation of the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual Affiliate Stigma Measure (LGB-ASM). Existing qualitative research and feedback from experts in stigma research, contributed to the development of 48 items that were subjected psychometric evaluation resulting in the final 17-item measure. Exploratory factor analysis of data from 471 LGB affiliates (family members and close friends of LGB individuals) resulted in 3 factors reflecting experiences of LGB affiliate stigma including (a) Public Discrimination/Rejection affiliate stigma, (b) Vicarious affiliate stigma, and (c) Public Shame affiliate stigma. Confirmatory factor analysis of data from a separate 101 participants supported the stability of the 3-factor model. Further psychometric evaluation of the measure resulted in evidence supporting the reliability (i.e., Cronbach's alphas of .71 to .93), convergent validity (i.e., with stigma consciousness, r = .17 to .45; with awareness of public devaluation, r = .18 to .28), and discriminant validity (i.e., with socially desirable responding, r = -.16 to .05). The final 17-item LGB-ASM yielded 2-to 3-week test-retest reliability coefficients of .74 to .76 with a sample of 61 participants. Links between the LGB-ASM and psychological distress (using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist - 21) were evaluated and unsupported.