Refratários são materiais com microestrutura heterogênea constituída de uma fração grosseira, os agregados, e de uma fração mais fina, a matriz, em que ambas exercem papéis fundamentais nas propriedades dos refratários, sendo a resistência ao dano por choque térmico, uma das mais importantes. Para avaliar essa questão crítica dos refratários há necessidade de se conhecer bem seu comportamento à propagação de trinca, principalmente quando submetido a uma tensão. Porém, devido à complexidade da estrutura desses materiais, o comportamento das regiões à frente e atrás da ponta da trinca sempre foi muito discutido, só que essa discussão sempre fez uso de modelos e simulações computacionais, já que é prevista uma zona de processo, em que diferentes mecanismos podem absorver energia aumentando a resistência à propagação da trinca principal. Nesta tese foi proposto o estudo experimental do comportamento da propagação de trinca em refratários, visando entender os mecanismos de resistência à propagação de trinca e o caminho das trincas propagantes, utilizando o método da cunha para propagação estável da trinca, que é o mais adequado para essa classe de materiais. Para isso foram utilizados, dois refratários distintos: tijolo e concreto, ambos de alta alumina. No tijolo, para visualização do caminho da trinca propagante após o ensaio, o caminho da trinca foi infiltrado com cola instantânea para garantir a integridade da mesma, a fim que amostras pudessem ser preparadas para análise de imagens em microscópio eletrônico de varredura. Devido à dificuldade dessa preparação, e de só ser possível observar a trinca após a propagação, um microscópio digital passou a ser utilizado in loco ao ensaio. Esse estudo foi realizado com o concreto, sendo possível associar o comprimento da trinca com a curva carga-deslocamento. A fim de complementar o estudo do processo de fratura, a técnica de emissão acústica (EA) passou a ser utilizada nos ensaios de propagação de trinca, já que quando um material é submetido a uma carga e as trincas se desenvolvem, há liberação de energia de deformação do material, sendo possível capturar os dados de energia dos sinais gerados pela propagação. Sendo assim foi possível correlacionar resultados de energia de fratura, início e tamanho de trinca com as curvas carga-deslocamento, carga-tempo, e inclusive, com a contagem de sinais acumulada-tempo, que foi complementar na estimativa da zona de processo completa, ou seja, os fenômenos produzidos atingiram o estado estacionário. A região em que se encontra o final da zona de processo coincide com o fim do regime estacionário, que é onde a trinca atravessa o corpo de prova. Dessa forma, mostra-se com essa tese, que o corpo de prova utilizado para a propagação estável de trinca pelo método da cunha, nas dimensões atuais, são suficientes para o desenvolvimento de todos os mecanismos de resistência à propagação de trinca em refratários. / Refractories are materials with heterogeneous microstructure, consisting of a coarse fraction, aggregates, and a finer fraction, the matrix, in which both play key roles in the properties of the refractory, and the resistance to thermal shock damage, one of the most important. To examine this critical issue of the refractory is no need to be familiar with their behavior to crack propagation, especially when subjected to a stress. The behavior of the regions ahead of and behind the crack tip has been discussed exhaustively, because a process zone was envisaged in which different mechanisms could absorb energy, thus increasing the propagation resistance of the main crack. However, this discussion has always been based on the use of models and computer simulations. The thesis presented here proposes an experimental study of the behavior of crack propagation in refractories, aiming to understand the mechanisms of crack propagation resistance and the crack propagation path, using the wedge splitting method to achieve stable crack propagation. To this end, two different refractory materials were used: brick and concrete, both high alumina. Based on the stable crack propagation test by the wedge method, techniques were sought that would aid in the visualization of crack propagation. In brick, the crack path was infiltrated with instant glue and infiltrated samples were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM); however, in addition to proving laborious, the crack was only visible after its propagation. In the case of concrete, this study was performed in loco during the test, using a digital microscope in combination with the acoustic emission (AE) technique. AE is defined as the generation of stress waves stored energy is suddenly released from localized sources within a material subjected to external loads. By means of the fracture energy data and the AE signals, it was possible to observe the entire fracture process and to correlate the results of fracture energy and crack onset and size with the load-displacement and load-time curves, and even the count of signals accumulated over time. This information was complementary to estimate the complete process zone, i.e., the phenomena produced reached the steady state. This study demonstrated that the dimensions of the test specimen used for stable crack propagation by the wedge splitting method suffice for the development of all the mechanisms of crack propagation resistance in refractories.

The employment of composite materials in the aerospace industry has been gradually considered due to the fundamental lightweight and strength characteristics that these type of materials offer. The science material and technological progress that has been reached, matches perfectly with the requirements for high-performance materials in aircraft and aerospace structures, thus, the development of primary structure elements applying composite materials became something very convenient. It is extremely important to pay attention to the failure modes that influence composite materials performances, since, these failures lead to a loss of stiffness and strength of the laminate. Delamination is a failure mode present in most of the damaged structures and can be ruinous, considering that, the evolution of interlaminar defects can carry the structure to a total failure followed by its collapse. Different techniques are usually adopted to accurately predict the behavior of damaged structures but, due to the complex nature of failure phenomena, there is not an established pattern. The present research project aims to develop a delamination propagation model to estimate a progressive interlaminar delamination failure in laminated composite materials and to allow the prediction of material\'s degradation due to the delamination phenomenon. Experimental tests assisted by ASTM Standards were performed to determine material\'s parameter, like the strain energy release rate, using GFRPs laminated composites. The delamination propagation model proposed was implemented as subroutines in FORTRAN language (UMAT-User Material Subroutine) with formulations based on the Fracture Mechanics. Finally, the model was compiled beside with the commercial Finite Element program ABAQUSTM. / O emprego de materiais compósitos na indústria aeroespacial tem sido gradualmente utilizado devido às suas características fundamentais, como peso leve e alta rigidez, que este tipo de material oferece. Tanto a ciência do material como o desenvolvimento tecnológico que se tem logrado, possibilitaram que estes materiais cumprissem com os requisitos de desempenho para aplicações em estruturas aeronáuticas e aeroespaciais, por tanto, o desenvolvimento de elementos de estruturas primárias usando materiais compósitos, passou a ser muito conveniente. É de extrema importância prestar atenção aos modos de falha que comprometem a performance dos materiais compósitos, uma vez que, estas falhas levam a uma perda de resistência e rigidez do laminado. A delaminação é um modo de falha presente na maioria de estruturas danificadas e pode ser desastroso, considerando que, a evolução dos defeitos interlaminares podem levar a estrutura a falhar seguido pelo colapso estructural. Diferentes técnicas são geralmente adotadas para prever, de maneira correta, o comportamento de estruturas danificadas, porém, devido à natureza complexa do fenômeno de falha, não existe um padrão estabelecido. O presente trabalho de pesquisa visa desenvolver um modelo de delaminação e de propagação da delaminação para estimar a evolução da falha interlaminar em materiais compósitos laminados e permitir a predição do comportamento do material com a evolução da delaminação. Ensaios experimentais auxiliados por normas ASTM foram realizados para determinar parâmetros do material, tais como, as taxas de liberação de energia de deformação, usando materiais compósitos laminados de matriz polimérica reforçada com fibra de vidro. O modelo de propagação da delaminação proposto, foi implementado como uma sub-rotina em linguagem FORTRAN (UMAT – User Material) com formulações baseadas na Mecânica da Fratura. Finalmente, o modelo foi compilado com o software comercial de Elementos Finitos, ABAQUSTM.

Refratários são materiais com microestrutura heterogênea constituída de uma fração grosseira, os agregados, e de uma fração mais fina, a matriz, em que ambas exercem papéis fundamentais nas propriedades dos refratários, sendo a resistência ao dano por choque térmico, uma das mais importantes. Para avaliar essa questão crítica dos refratários há necessidade de se conhecer bem seu comportamento à propagação de trinca, principalmente quando submetido a uma tensão. Porém, devido à complexidade da estrutura desses materiais, o comportamento das regiões à frente e atrás da ponta da trinca sempre foi muito discutido, só que essa discussão sempre fez uso de modelos e simulações computacionais, já que é prevista uma zona de processo, em que diferentes mecanismos podem absorver energia aumentando a resistência à propagação da trinca principal. Nesta tese foi proposto o estudo experimental do comportamento da propagação de trinca em refratários, visando entender os mecanismos de resistência à propagação de trinca e o caminho das trincas propagantes, utilizando o método da cunha para propagação estável da trinca, que é o mais adequado para essa classe de materiais. Para isso foram utilizados, dois refratários distintos: tijolo e concreto, ambos de alta alumina. No tijolo, para visualização do caminho da trinca propagante após o ensaio, o caminho da trinca foi infiltrado com cola instantânea para garantir a integridade da mesma, a fim que amostras pudessem ser preparadas para análise de imagens em microscópio eletrônico de varredura. Devido à dificuldade dessa preparação, e de só ser possível observar a trinca após a propagação, um microscópio digital passou a ser utilizado in loco ao ensaio. Esse estudo foi realizado com o concreto, sendo possível associar o comprimento da trinca com a curva carga-deslocamento. A fim de complementar o estudo do processo de fratura, a técnica de emissão acústica (EA) passou a ser utilizada nos ensaios de propagação de trinca, já que quando um material é submetido a uma carga e as trincas se desenvolvem, há liberação de energia de deformação do material, sendo possível capturar os dados de energia dos sinais gerados pela propagação. Sendo assim foi possível correlacionar resultados de energia de fratura, início e tamanho de trinca com as curvas carga-deslocamento, carga-tempo, e inclusive, com a contagem de sinais acumulada-tempo, que foi complementar na estimativa da zona de processo completa, ou seja, os fenômenos produzidos atingiram o estado estacionário. A região em que se encontra o final da zona de processo coincide com o fim do regime estacionário, que é onde a trinca atravessa o corpo de prova. Dessa forma, mostra-se com essa tese, que o corpo de prova utilizado para a propagação estável de trinca pelo método da cunha, nas dimensões atuais, são suficientes para o desenvolvimento de todos os mecanismos de resistência à propagação de trinca em refratários. / Refractories are materials with heterogeneous microstructure, consisting of a coarse fraction, aggregates, and a finer fraction, the matrix, in which both play key roles in the properties of the refractory, and the resistance to thermal shock damage, one of the most important. To examine this critical issue of the refractory is no need to be familiar with their behavior to crack propagation, especially when subjected to a stress. The behavior of the regions ahead of and behind the crack tip has been discussed exhaustively, because a process zone was envisaged in which different mechanisms could absorb energy, thus increasing the propagation resistance of the main crack. However, this discussion has always been based on the use of models and computer simulations. The thesis presented here proposes an experimental study of the behavior of crack propagation in refractories, aiming to understand the mechanisms of crack propagation resistance and the crack propagation path, using the wedge splitting method to achieve stable crack propagation. To this end, two different refractory materials were used: brick and concrete, both high alumina. Based on the stable crack propagation test by the wedge method, techniques were sought that would aid in the visualization of crack propagation. In brick, the crack path was infiltrated with instant glue and infiltrated samples were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM); however, in addition to proving laborious, the crack was only visible after its propagation. In the case of concrete, this study was performed in loco during the test, using a digital microscope in combination with the acoustic emission (AE) technique. AE is defined as the generation of stress waves stored energy is suddenly released from localized sources within a material subjected to external loads. By means of the fracture energy data and the AE signals, it was possible to observe the entire fracture process and to correlate the results of fracture energy and crack onset and size with the load-displacement and load-time curves, and even the count of signals accumulated over time. This information was complementary to estimate the complete process zone, i.e., the phenomena produced reached the steady state. This study demonstrated that the dimensions of the test specimen used for stable crack propagation by the wedge splitting method suffice for the development of all the mechanisms of crack propagation resistance in refractories.

The application of advanced composite materials, such as graphite/epoxy, has been on the rise for the last four decades. The mechanical advantages, such as their higher specific stiffness and strength as compared to monolithic materials, make them attractive for aerospace and automotive applications. Despite these advantages, composites with brittle fibers have lower ductility and fracture toughness than monolithic materials. One way to increase the fracture toughness of composites is to have a weak fiber-matrix interface that would blunt crack tips by crack deflection into the interface and hence enhance fracture toughness. However, this also reduces the transverse properties of the composite. Therefore, an optimum fiber-matrix interface would be the one that is just weak enough to cause crack deflection into interface. This study investigates the effect of fiber-to-matrix moduli ratio, fiber-volume fraction, fiber orthotropy, and thermal stresses on the possibility of crack deflection. A finite element model is used to analyze a 2-D axisymmetric representative volume element- a three-phase composite cylinder made of fiber, matrix, and composite. A penny shaped crack is assumed in the fiber. To determine whether the crack would deflect into the interface or propagate into the matrix, maximum stresses at the fiber-matrix interface and in the matrix are compared to the interface and matrix strengths. As opposed to most studies in the literature, this study found that fiber-volume fractions do have an impact on crack deflection and this impact increases with large fiber-to-matrix moduli ratios. The presence of orthotropic fiber in the composite increases the possibility of crack deflection with increasing fibervolume fraction in the early and middle stages of the fiber crack growth. The thermal stresses decrease the likelihood of crack deflection when the thermal expansion coefficient of the matrix is larger than that of the fiber.

Fatigue assessments have been carried out predominantly with quasi-deterministic approaches, such as the use of SN curves. However, both the loading and the resistance of fatigue prone components are subjected to significant uncertainties. Consequently, a prediction of the remaining fatigue life based on deterministic load and resistance models can lead to unreliable results. This work presents a general reliability-based approach to predict fatigue life of steel components. The approach incorporates prediction of fatigue crack initiation, modeled with a strain-based correlation approach, and propagation, modeled using a linear elastic fracture mechanics approach, and is applicable to new, cracked or repaired structural components. Based on the analysis of existing test results and additional crack initiation and propagation tests on weld metal, the relevant probabilistic fatigue material properties of grade 350WT steel and a matching weld metal were established. An experimental program was carried out on welded details tested either in the as-welded, stress-relieved, conventionally peened, or ultrasonically peened condition. It was demonstrated that ultrasonic peening is superior to the other investigated post weld treatment methods. Using finite element analyses, the results of the tests were deterministically predicted for several different initial conditions, including initial flaw and crack sizes and locations, as well as different levels of residual stresses. A model incorporating an initial flaw and accounting for crack closure and the threshold stress intensity factor range was retained. A probabilistic analysis using Monte Carlo Simulation was carried out to calibrate the relevant parameters. A general reliability-based approach, which includes both the loading and resistance sides of the limit state function was proposed and applied to three practical examples: prediction of test results from two test programs and the prediction of the remaining fatigue life of a cracked component as a function of the safety index. These three applications demonstrated that accurate fatigue life predictions targeting a predefined safety index are achieved. / Structural Engineering

The cyclic-compression behavior of a Cu45Zr45Al5Ag5 bulk metallic glass (BMG) was investigated in order to elucidate the damage initiation and growth mechanisms. The present Cu45Zr45Al5Ag5 BMG was found to have the highest fatigue-endurance limit for BMGs reported to date. Fracture under cyclic compression occurred in a pure shear mode. In addition to many shear bands and cracks, areas of “chipping” were commonly found on the outside surfaces of the fatigue specimens. Crack growth rates were found decrease with cycles. The effects of the as-cast specimen size, cooling rate, and the free volume content on the monotonic and cyclic compression behavior of a Zr-based BMG was investigated. The smaller samples experienced a faster cooling rate, resulting in a higher free volume content. The smaller samples displayed superior monotonic compression and cyclic compression properties. This trend was attributed to a higher free volume content. The effect of the sample aspect ratio (height/diameter) on the cyclic compression behavior of a Zr-based BMG was explored. For smaller aspect ratios (0.5), the yield strength and compressive plastic strain significantly increased when compared to that for an aspect ratio of 2. In general, when the aspect ratio was 0.5, the fatigue lives were longer than when the aspect ratio was 2. The dramatic effect of the sample aspect ratio was attributed to the development of a hydrostatic stress state from the interaction of the uniaxial applied load and the friction stress developed at the interface of the top and bottom specimen surfaces and the platens. The stress-life fatigue behavior and fracture morphology of a (Cu60Zr30Ti10)99Sn1 BMG alloy was investigated under both 3-point and 4-point bending conditions. For all stress levels tested, the fatigue lifetimes tended to be higher for the 3-point loading condition. All fracture surfaces were found to be comprised of four main regions: a crack-initiation site, a stable crack-growth region, an unstable fast-fracture region, and a melting region. Finely spaced parallel marks oriented somewhat perpendicular to the direction of crack propagation were observed in the stable crack-growth region. Analyses of these marks found that their spacing increased with increasing stress intensity- factor range.

In this licentiate thesis the work done in the TURBO POWER project Influence of high temperature hold times on the fatigue life of nickel-based superalloys will be presented. The overall objective of this project is to develop and evaluate tools for designing against fatigue in gas turbine applications, with special focus on the nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718. Firstly, the constitutive behaviour of the material has been been studied, where focus has been placed on trying to describe the mean stress relaxation and initial softening of the material under intermediate temperatures. Secondly, the fatigue crack propagation behaviour under high temperature hold times has been studied. Focus has here been placed on investigating the main fatigue crack propagation phenomena with the aim of setting up a basis for fatigue crack propagation modelling. This thesis is divided into two parts. The first part describes the general framework, including basic constitutive and fatigue crack propagation behaviour as well as a theoretical background for the constitutive modelling of mean stress relaxation. This framework is then used in the second part, which consists of the four included papers.

Welds in materials intended for service at temperatures above the creep activation temperature often develop damage before the base metal. The weld is a discontinuity in the material and stresses and strains often accumulate in the weld. Knowledge of the properties of the weld is essential to the safe operation of the component containing the weld. The work in this thesis has been aimed at the study of welds in service at high temperatures: The work is divided into two main chapters. The first chapter deals with welds in stainlesssteels and dissimilar metal welds and includes three papers, and the second chapter dealswith welds in copper intended for nuclear waste disposal, also including three papers. Common to both parts is that the temperature is high enough for most of the damage in the welds to result from creep. In the first part the role of the weld microstructure on the creep crack propagation properties has been studied. Experiments using compact tension specimens have been performed on service exposed, low alloyed heat resistant steels. The results show good correlation with the crack tip parameter, C*, during steady state creep crack growth. The test methodology has also been reviewed and sensitive test parameters have been identified. The results from the creep crack propagation tests on service exposed material has been modeled using uniaxial creep data on both new and ex-service material. The development of the weld microstructure in a dissimilar metal weld between two heat resistant steels has also been investigated. A weld was made between one ferritic and one martensitic steel and the development of the microstructure during welding and post-weldheat treatments has been studied. The results show that the carbon depleted zone that develops near the weld metal in the lower alloyed steel depends on the formation and dissolution of the M23C6-carbide. Variations of the weld parameters and the post-weld heat treatment affect the size and shape of this zone. The process has been successfully modeled by computer simulation. The second part focuses on oxygen free copper intended for nuclear waste disposal containers. The containers are made with an inner core of cast nodular iron and an outer core of copper for corrosion protection. The copper shell has to be welded and two weld methods has been tested, electron beam welding and friction stir welding. Creep specimens taken from both weld types have been tested as have base metal specimens. The technical specifications of the waste canisters demand that the creep ductility of both the copper shell and the welds has to be as high as possible. The creep test results show that base material doped with at least 30 ppm phosphorus has high creep ductility, and friction stir welds made from this material has almost as high creep strength and creep ductility. Copper without phosphorus does not exhibit the same ductility. The creep properties evaluated from testing has been modeled and extrapolated for the intended purpose / QC20100719

In this study a methodology is developed for the fatigue and fracture analysis of helicopter fuselage structures, which are considered as the stiffened panels. The damage tolerance behavior of the stiffened panels multiaxially loaded is investigated by implementing virtual crack closure technique (VCCT). Validation of VCCT is done through comparison between numerical analysis and the studies from literature, which consists of stiffened panels uniaxially loaded and the panel with an inclined crack. A program based on Fortran programming language is developed to automate the crack growth analysis under mixed mode conditions. The program integrates the prediction of the change in crack propagation direction by maximum circumferential stress criterion and the computation of energy release rate by VCCT. It allows reducing the computation time for damage tolerance evaluation for mixed mode cases through finite element analysis and runs the procedure file of MSC.Marc/Mentat for numerical analysis and the program generated by Patran Command Language (PCL) of MSC.Patran for remeshing. The developed code is verified by comparing the crack growth trajectories obtained by numerical analysis with the experimental studies from literature. A submodeling technique is utilized to analyze a particular fuselage portion of helicopter tail boom. Effects of different skin/stringer configurations of the helicopter fuselage structure on stress intensity factor are studied by means of the developed program. Fatigue crack growth analysis is performed by using stress intensity factors obtained from numerical analysis and fatigue propagation models proposed in literature.

When glass breaks from the impact of an object, it exhibits a distinctive shattering pattern comprised of two different regions. This pattern was investigated using experimental impacts and predicted using Young’s Modulus. Results were not as expected, and it is likely that there exists error in some measurements. Further investigation of this topic is recommended.