Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O Brasil ocupa uma posição privilegiada no mercado internacional de produção de abacaxis, porém apenas duas cultivares são amplamente utilizadas, e suscetíveis à fusariose, principal doença da cultura, limitando a expansão das áreas de cultivo. Esta pesquisa compreendeu experimentos realizados in vitro e em campo, testando as cultivares de abacaxi. Na propagação in vitro objetivou-se avaliar a eficiência do hipoclorito de sódio em diferentes tempos de exposição na desinfestação e estabelecimento de explantes de abacaxizeiro cvs. Pérola, Vitória e Gold e sua multiplicação in vitro. Para alcançar estes objetivos foram realizados dois experimentos. Experimento 1: o delineamento adotado foi o inteiramente casualizado, em esquema fatorial 3 x 4 para o experimento 1, composto por três concentrações de hipoclorito de sódio (0,5; 1,5 e 2,5 %) e quatro tempos de exposição (5, 10, 15 e 20 minutos). As variáveis avaliadas no experimento 1 foram: porcentagem de contaminação, porcentagem de sobrevivência e porcentagem de estabelecimento. Experimento 2: o delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, no esquema fatorial 4x3x2, com quatro épocas de análise (0, 7, 15 e 30 dias após a repicagem), três cultivares de abacaxizeiro (Pérola, Vitória e Gold) e ausência e presença de Ágar no meio de cultura. As variáveis avaliadas foram: massa fresca, massa seca, comprimento do maior broto, número médio de brotos e número médio de folhas. Os tratamentos influenciaram distintamente as cultivares, sendo recomendado o uso da solução de hipoclorito de sódio nas concentrações de 1,5% por 15 minutos para cv. Pérola; com 1,5% para cv. Vitória por 20 minutos e na concentração 2,5% por 20 minutos para cv. Gold; a multiplicação pode ser realizada nas cvs. Pérola e Gold com meio MS líquido. No experimento em campo, objetivou-se avaliar características agronômicas das cultivares de abacaxizeiro Pérola, Imperial, Vitória e Gold em condições de campo em Boa Vista-RR. O delineamento adotado foi em blocos ao acaso, com oito repetições. O abacaxizeiro cultivares Pérola, Vitória e Gold apresentaram características similares de massa da planta, acidez total titulável e produtividade. A cv. Vitória apresentou características de massa dos frutos e características químicas (acidez total titulável e relação sólidos solúveis totais/acidez total titulável) similares a cv. Pérola, enquanto a cv. Imperial apresentou massa dos frutos inferiores à observada em regiões de condições edafoclimáticas distintas deste trabalho. / Brazil occupies a privileged position in the international market production of pineapples, but only two cultivars are widely used, and susceptible to fusarium, major illness culture, limiting the expansion of cultivated areas. This research included experiments in vitro and field testing the pineapple cultivars. This research included experiments in vitro and field testing the pineapple cultivars. In vitro propagation aimed to evaluate the efficiency of sodium hypochlorite at different exposure times in disinfestation and establishment of explants of pineapple cvs. Pearl, Victory and Gold and their multiplication in vitro. To achieve these objectives, two experiments were conducted. experiment 1: the design was completely randomized , factorial 3 x 4 for experiment 1, consisting of three concentrations of sodium hypochlorite (0.5, 1.5 and 2.5% ) and four exposure times ( 5 , 10 , 15 and 20 minutes). Variables evaluated in experiment 1 were: percentage of contamination, survival percentage and percentage of establishment. Experiment 2: The experimental design was completely randomized in a factorial 4x3x2, with four periods of analysis (0, 7, 15 and 30 days after transplanting) , three cultivars of pineapple (Pearl, Victory and Gold) and the absence and presence of agar into the culture medium. The variables evaluated were: fresh and dry mass, length of the longest sprout, average number of shoots and number of leaves. Treatments distinctly influenced varieties, recommended the use of sodium hypochlorite solution at 1.5 % for 15 minutes to cv. pearl; Victory for 20 minutes and 2.5 % concentration for 20 minutes to cv. Gold; multiplication can be performed in cvs. Pearl and Gold with MS liquid medium. The field experiment aimed to evaluate agronomic characteristics of cultivars of pineapple Pearl, Imperial, Victory and Gold in field conditions in Boa Vista-RR. The design was a randomized block design with eight replications. The pineapple cultivars Pearl, Victory and Gold showed similar characteristics of plant mass, total acidity and productivity. The cv. Victoria showed characteristics of fruit mass and chemical (titratable acidity and total soluble solids ratio / ATT) related to hp. Pearl, while cv. Imperial showed the mass observed in the lower regions of different climatic conditions of this study fruit.

The evaluation of the costs involved in a production process becomes an increasingly essential tool for making decisions. In rice production there are several factors that may affect, directly or indirectly, the productivity and profitability. Besides the natural factors, like soil and climate, the choice of cultivar, the infra-structure and management system of the field, the logistic, and others, will be directly associated with the expected return of the investment. Besides these factors, is unthinkable to accomplish any activity without worry about an environmentally safe technology and production. The general objective of this dissertation is: search and compare the costs of production, productivity and environmental impacts between the systems of rice cultivars: Conventional, Clearfield and hybrid . Thus, the study started from the needs of a rice producer in the central region of Rio Grande do Sul State (Brazil) to know the production costs, productivity and environmental impacts associated with three types of rice cultivar systems most commonly used today, the Conventional Rice IRGA 417, IRGA 422 CL Clearfield System and the hybrid Arize 1003. Through unstructured interviews with the producer and the agronomist, observation "in loco" and documentary research lead to the production costs to be obtained for the goal of comparison in the diverse steps needed to the rice field production to facilitate data analysis and achieve the proposed goals. The results obtained allowed the producer the correct verification of which cultivar showed the highest efficiency in technical, economical end environmental subjects. / O levantamento dos custos envolvidos em um processo produtivo torna-se cada vez mais ferramenta imprescindível para a tomada de decisões. Na produção de arroz existem diversos fatores que podem afetar, direta ou indiretamente, a produtividade e a rentabilidade da atividade. Além dos fatores naturais como o solo e clima, a escolha da cultivar, a infra estrutura, o sistema de condução da lavoura e a logística, entre outros, estão associados diretamente ao retorno esperado do investimento. Além desses fatores, não se pode imaginar qualquer atividade sem a preocupação com tecnologia e produção ecologicamente correta. O objetivo geral desta dissertação é: apurar e comparar custos de produção, produtividade e impactos ambientais entre os sistemas de cultivo de arroz: Convencional, Clearfield e híbrido . Sendo assim, o estudo partiu da necessidade de um orizicultor da região central do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (Brasil) de conhecer os custos de produção, a produtividade e os impactos ambientais associados aos três tipos de sistemas de cultivo de arroz mais usados atualmente: o Arroz Convencional (IRGA 417), Sistema Clearfield (IRGA 422 CL) e o híbrido (Arize 1003). Através de entrevistas não estruturadas com o produtor e o agrônomo, observação in loco e pesquisa documental foram apurados os custos de produção a fim de compará-los nas diversas fases necessárias para o cultivo do arroz visando facilitar a análise dos dados e alcançar os objetivos propostos. Os resultados apurados permitiram ao produtor a correta verificação de qual cultivar apresentou maior eficiência técnica, econômica e ambiental.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Deposition, distribution and tenacity on the leaf surface can influence the efficacy of the fungicide. The effect of rainfall after the spray might run out fungicides of contact from leaf surface. It can also remove the systemic fungicides, if the spray occurs right after the fungicide application. The goals of this work were (i) performance of fungicides due to the drop spectrum under simulated conditions of rainfall on soybean rust control and (ii) determine the interference of rainfall on the biological efficacy of fungicides in different of soybean cultivars to control Phakopsora pachyrhizi. Two experiments were run out in greenhouse conditions. Experiment 1 studied three spray nozzles (twin flat spray - TJ60 11002; extended range flat spray - XR 11002 and wide angle flat spray - TT 11002), spray a fungicide with and without adjuvant, and four intervals of rain after spraying (0, 30, 60 and 120 minutes); two control treatments (without chemical spray and without rain). Experiment 2 rated the performance of four fungicides (Azoxystrobin + Cyproconazol; Pyraclostrobin + Epoxyconazol, Pycoxistrobin + Cyproconazol and Tebuconazol 250 EC) sprayed on seven cultivars (Coodetec 214 RR, Coodetec 219 RR, Monsoy 8000 RR, Monsoy 8080 RR, Fundacep 56 RR, FMT Tabarana and Nidera 7636 RR). Treatments were exposed to simulated rain at intervals of 0, 30, 60, 120 and 240 minutes after spray. The fungicides were sprayed with CO2 pressurized sprayer. The simulated rain produced a precipitation intensity of 20 mm/4min. The simulated rain caused negative effect on the performance of spraying nozzles and the effectiveness of Phakopsora pachyrhizi and powdery mildew control. Fungicide application with no addition of adjuvant affected the efficacy of soybean rust control due to the occurrence of rain immediately after the spraying. The drops produced by the nozzles XR showed the best drop deposition to the control of the soybean rust. In the absence of adjuvant it was observed less negative effect caused by the rain. When the adjuvant was added to the fungicide, it provided less control than the nozzle TT at 0 and 30 minutes after spraying. It was observed relationship between influences of the rainfastness on the efficiency of disease control provided by fungicides in different levels for the seven cultivars tested. The cultivars Msoy 8000 and Nidera 7636 were more showed higher product washing soon after spraying showing AUCPD superior to the other cultivars when sprayed azoxystrobin + cyproconazol. However the cultivars CD 214, CD 219 and FMT Tabarana suffered minor effect due to the rainfastness. It showed significant differences from the other cultivars as much to the final severity of rust as the AUCPD for the same fungicide. Occurrence of rain immediately after the spraying of pyraclostrobin + epoxyconazol was observed superiority in the disease control of the cultivars Cep 56, Nidera 7636 and CD 219 with smaller values of severity and final AUCPD. The efficiency of control of the fungicide pycoxistrobin + cyproconazol was less affected in cultivars Cep 56 and Nidera 7636 by rainfastness. The fungicide tebuconazol was little affected by rainfastness when sprayed in cultivars Cep 56 and CD 219, but in the CD 214 and Nidera 7636 was negative effect of rain. Yield per plant and weight of a thousand grains showed similar trend considering the final severity and AUCPD of the soybean rust. / A deposição, distribuição e tenacidade na superfície foliar influenciam a eficiência de um fungicida. A ação da chuva, logo após a pulverização, pode remover principalmente fungicidas de contato e também os sistêmicos das superfícies foliares das culturas. O presente trabalho teve por objetivos (i) avaliar o desempenho de pontas de pulverização no controle de doenças da soja em condições de chuva simulada e (ii) determinar impacto da chuva na eficiência biológica de fungicidas em variedades de soja para controle da ferrugem asiática. Foram instalados dois experimentos em casa de vegetação no município de Itaara/RS, no experimento 1 foram testadas três pontas de pulverização (jato plano duplo TJ60 11002; jato leque plano de uso ampliado XR 11002 e leque plano defletor TT 11002), um fungicida com e sem adjuvante e quatro intervalos de chuva após a aplicação (0, 30, 60 e 120 minutos); mais dois tratamentos testemunhas, uma sem controle químico e outra sem chuva. No experimento 2 foi avaliado o comportamento de quatro fungicidas (Azoxistrobina + Ciproconazol + Nimbus; Piraclostrobina + Epoxiconazol, Picoxistrobina + Ciproconazol + Nimbus e Tebuconazole 250 CE) aplicados em sete cultivares (Coodetec 214 RR, Coodetec 219 RR, Monsoy 8000 RR, Monsoy 8080 RR, Fundacep 56 RR, FMT Tabarana e Nidera 7636 RR) quando submetidos à chuva simulada aos 0, 30, 60, 120 e 240 minutos após a aplicação. A aplicação dos tratamentos fungicidas foi realizada com auxílio de pulverizador costal pressurizado à CO2. A chuva simulada foi obtida através de equipamento mecânico munido de aspersor Vejeet 80100, produzindo precipitação de intensidade de 20 mm. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a chuva causou efeito negativo no desempenho das pontas de pulverização e na eficiência de controle de ferrugem asiática e oídio no experimento 1. Quando não foi utilizado adjuvante em combinação com o fungicida a eficiência de controle foi prejudicada pela ocorrência de chuva logo após a aplicação. A ponta XR apresentou o melhor desempenho no controle da ferrugem da soja quando sem adição de adjuvante, apresentando menor efeito negativo da chuva. Quando foi adicionado adjuvante à calda essa ponta proporcionou controle inferior a TT aos 0 e 30 minutos após a aplicação. No experimento 2 foi verificado que a rainfastness influenciou a eficiência de controle proporcionado pelos fungicidas, em diferentes magnitudes para as sete cultivares testadas. As cultivares Msoy 8000 e Nidera 7636 foram mais suscetíveis a lavagem do fungicida logo após a aplicação apresentando AACPF superior às demais cultivares quando aplicado Azoxistrobina + Ciproconazol, já as cultivares CD 214, CD 219 e FMT Tabarana foram as que sofreram menor impacto da rainfastness com diferenças significativas das outras cultivares tanto na severidade final da ferrugem como na AACPF para o mesmo fungicida. Com ocorrência de chuva logo após a aplicação de piraclostrobina + epoxiconazol foi observada superioridade no controle da doença nas cultivares Cep 56, Nidera 7636 e CD 219 que apresentaram menores valores de severidade final e AACPF. A eficiência de controle do fungicida picoxistrobina + ciproconazol foi menos afetada nas cultivares Cep 56 e Nidera 7636 pela rainfastness. O fungicida tebuconazol foi pouco afetado pela rainfastness quando aplicado nas cultivares Cep 56 e CD 219, já na CD 214 e Nidera 7636 ocorreu impacto negativo da chuva. Para peso de grãos por planta e peso de mil grãos foi observada a mesma tendência de resposta verificada para severidade final e AACP da ferrugem da soja.

The disposal of gypsiferous water, generated in coal mining operations, has become a problem in the Mpumalanga Highveld region in South Africa. As part of an investigation into the feasibility of using this water for irrigation, sand and water culture experiments were conducted in a glasshouse and growth chambers to determine growth responses of maize, sorghum, pearl millet, sunflower, soybean, cowpea, dry bean, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, annual ryegrass, and lucerne cultivars to gypsiferous mine water in the germination, seedling and vegetative growth stages. Germination %’s were generally not affected. The seedling growth of maize, sorghum, pearl millet and lucerne was more sensitive and showed more significant cultivar differences than the seedling growth of soybean and the annual temperate crops. Seedling growth curves with increasing concentrations of Ca, Mg and SO4 followed a similar pattern for most of the crops: where CaSO4 was in solution, growth decreased in a linear manner, but above saturation concentrations with increasing gypsum crystal content, it increased despite decreasing osmotic potentials of the treatment solutions. The vegetative growth of sunflower, lucerne, dry bean and rye was more tolerant than seedling growth, but was more sensitive for maize and cowpea, and the same as seedling growth for sorghum, pearl millet, wheat, oats, triticale and annual ryegrass. It was concluded that the major property of this water that suppressed growth was the decreased osmotic potential. However, it is the ‘effective’ osmotic potential (i.e., the average osmotic potential during the whole growth period) and not that of the treatment solutions, that was mainly responsible for the eventual growth. The ‘effective osmotic potential’ is determined by evapotranspiration and the rapidity of gypsum precipitation, which in turn may be affected by the growth rate, temporal, environmental and soil factors. Sensitivity of crops and growth stages is therefore related to its sensitivity to the external osmotic potential, whereas tolerance both in the seedling and vegetative growth stages was found in crops primarily affected by the ionic effects of Na and/or Cl. Possible nutrient effects due to the high Ca and SO4 need further investigation. / Thesis (PhD (Plant Production and Soil Science))--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Apple scab, powdery mildew and woolly apple aphid are a major concern for apple breeders and producers. Control of these diseases is a significant economic and marketing priority for the South African apple industry. Application of chemicals and orchard management practices are the main methods for controlling these diseases. These diseases require an average of 15 chemical sprays per season, which leads to increased production costs for the farmer. The increased cost of chemical based control programs and demand from consumers for ‘organic apples’ grown with very little to no chemical sprays makes it important to breed for commercial apple cultivars with endogenous disease resistance genes (R-genes). The use of genetic tools (apple genetic linkage maps and the apple genome sequence) to track and introgress endogenous R-genes in breeding and to confer durable disease resistance in commercial apple cultivars will lead to a more cost effective means of disease control for apple producers. Historically, most breeding programmes rely on recurrent conventional breeding systems. This involves the crossing of apple selections showing resistance to a given disease with a susceptible elite variety. This is followed by phenotyping the progeny to identify trees exhibiting segregating field resistance. Several crosses and backcrossing are required to produce resistant varieties and to fix the resistance trait using this breeding strategy. This breeding technique is time consuming, especially in perennial tree species such as apples, which have a long juvenile period. Molecular markers have enabled the building of genetic maps, which has allowed for tracking of the inheritance of genes contributing towards the observed resistances. This has given breeders the opportunity to start the implementation of marker-assisted-breeding (MAB) and marker-assistedselection (MAS). MAB and MAS greatly reduce the time required to select for favourable genotypes, given that MAB facilitates efficient selection for inherited traits at the seedling stage. With the publication of the apple genome sequence, the identification of the genes involved in disease resistances has been made possible and this will allow researchers to venture into cisgenics for apples, which will further reduce the time required for the introgression of desirable genes into commercial cultivars. The main thrust of this research was to generate dense genetic linkage maps for three mapping populations segregating for apple scab, woolly apple aphid and powdery mildew resistance. The three mapping populations are ‘Mildew Resistant’ x ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Russian Seedling’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ and Malus platycarpa x ‘Mildew Resistant’ and are Malus full-sib outbreed mapping populations. The generation of the genetic maps was for use in the subsequent identification candidate disease resistance QTLs/genes that can be implemented in apple cisgenics. Integrated genetic maps using SSRs, DArTs and SNP marker data were generated for all the three crosses. The integrated map of ‘Mildew Resistance’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ consists of 1, 563 markers with a total map length of 1, 298.8 cM. The ‘Russian Seedling’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ genetic map is composed of 979 markers with a total map length of 1, 729.9 cM. The Malus platycarpa x ‘Mildew Resistant’ integrated map has 616 markers and a total map length of 1,324.3 cM. Due to the fragmentation of some of the linkage groups in the ‘Russian Seedling’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ and in the Malus platycarpa x ‘Mildew Resistant’ genetic maps, a phylogenetic analysis was performed to evaluate the genetic distances between the parents of the crosses in order to understand the cause of the fragmentation of these two integrated genetic maps. QTLs were detected through the statistical correlation of the phenotypic and map data using restricted Multiple QTL Mapping (rMQM) from MapQTL® 6.0. The genome-wide LOD score minimum QTL detection thresholds were determined using 10 000 permutations for each population. The minimum QTL detection threshold for accepting a putative QTL was then determined to be 4.5 for ‘Mildew Resistant’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ and 4.6 for both the ‘Malus platycarpa’ x ‘Mildew Resistant’ and ‘Russian Seedling’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ mapping populations. A total of 17 putative QTLs were detected for the ‘Mildew Resistant’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ population, 10 putative QTLs for the Malus platycarpa x ‘Mildew Resistant’ population and nine putative QTLs for the ‘Russian Seedling’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ population were detected for the three diseases under study. The two putative QTLs for apple scab resistance detected on LG 02 of the ‘Russian Seedling’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ map coincided with the loci previously identified as encoding two apple scab resistance genes Vh2 and Vh4 on ‘Russian apple’. The QTL for apple scab resistance identified on the proximal QTL of LG 02 co-localized with SNP marker R_8936738_Lg2 on the loci where Vh4 was previously identified. The distal QTL on LG 02 shown to encode the Vh2 R-gene was linked with the SNP marker R_32981524_Lg2. With ‘Russian apple’ being known to carry a natural pyramid of R-genes for apple scab on LG 02, therefore, the ‘Russian Seedling’ used in this study was screened by a set of 14 SSR markers to determine if it was related to ‘Russian apple. The 14 SSRs produced identical alleles to those amplified by ‘Russian apple’, which means “Russian Seedling’ and ‘Russian apple’ are closely related or identical. The LG 02 pseudo-chromosome sequence was extracted from the NCBI database housing the apple genome sequence and was then used to mine for the putative R-genes within the two QTL regions. The region corresponding to the Vh2 loci, which was roughly a 600 kb region, had two clusters of ABC (PDR) disease resistance related genes. These were predicted using a full Pfam domain search and were only detected on the negative strand. The 60 kb region corresponding to the Vh4 loci comprised a cluster of LRR domains that were also detected on the negative strand using a full Pfam domain search. This 60 kb region was further analysed using Phytozome and Genome Database for Rosaceae (GDR) leading to two candidate disease resistance genes being identified. Ten consensus gene sequences were present within the 60 kb region, with only two transcripts MDP0000657246 and MDP0000128458 identified as being disease resistance related genes. The MDP0000657246 was identified on the contig MDC000294 of the Malus x domestica reference genome as being a Leucine Rich Repeat protein kinase family, which is one of the most abundant disease resistance family mainly involved in the gene-for-gene resistance mechanism. The MDP0000128458 locus was identified on contig MDC015161 as being a Ser/Thr phosphatase 7. The Ser/Thr phosphatase genes have been associated with the regulation of MAP kinase cascades that have been shown to induce the hypersensitive response (HR) in tobacco. Therefore these two genes are likely to be the loci associated with the hypersensitive response associated with the infection of apples with race 4 of apple scab, carrying the Vh4 apple scab resistance gene. Recurrent putative QTLs were detected that still need to be validated in order to be used for MAB. The ‘Russian Seedling’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ cross produced a single powdery mildew resistance QTL located on LG08 and conferring a 1:1 resistance to susceptible phenotypic segregation ratio. These results indicate that the source of the resistance thus was a single dominant resistance gene. The ‘Mildew Resistant’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ mapping population also showed two stable QTLs one for powdery mildew on LG 03, which co-segregated with SNP GD_LG03snp00866 and in addition SNP R_13071892_Lg10 was also identified to be co-segregating with the QTL for apple scab resistance on LG10. However, none of these recurrent QTLs co-localized with known genes or QTLs. For the phylogenetic analysis, re-sequenced data using the Illumina® sequencing technologies and the apple SNP chip data for ‘Russian Seedling’, ‘Mildew Resistant’, Malus platycarpa, a Chinese accession of Malus sieversii and ‘Anna’ where used to infer relatedness of the five genotypes. The Chinese accession of Malus sieversii was included in the analysis since ‘Russian Seedling’ was thought to be relatively close genetically. Whilst ‘Anna’ is known to be a low chilling cultivar of Malus x domestica (Borkh) and therefore would add in the phylogenetic placement of ‘Mildew Resistant’ and Malus platycarpa. These were sequenced to coverage of approximately 60X for ‘Russian Seedling’ and 6X for the other four genotypes. The sequence data was aligned to the reference Malus x domestica cv Golden Delicious mitochondrial genome sequence. Phylogenetic analysis was then performed using both the data from the apple SNP-chip and the aligned mitochondrial genomes. The results from both sets of data supported the putative evolutionary distances between the five genotypes. ‘Russian Seedling’ and M. sieversii were closely related, while both were genetically divergent from the closely related ‘Anna’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ commercial cultivars. This analysis however indicated that ‘Mildew Resistant’ was relatively closely related to ‘Golden Delicious’ and hence the low number of markers showing segregation distortions for the ‘Mildew Resistant’ x ‘Golden Delicious’ population in the 17 LGs of the integrated map. However, the other two mapping population exhibited a high number of markers with segregation distortions. Markers which are closely associated with disease resistance to apple scab powdery mildew and woolly apple aphid resistance will play a major role in the identification of the genes responsible for the resistances being observed. The identification of the two candidate genes for the Vh4 gene associated with apple scab resistance will be the platform from which a cisgenic programme can be implemented in the South African apple breeding program.

The behavior of seedlings of six sorghum cultivars planted at 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 centimeters was studied in growth chambers at air temperatures of 28, 32, 36, and 40 centigrades (daytime). A day length of 12 hours and a nighttime air temperature 8 centigrades lower than daytime were used throughout. The cultivars, three hybrids and three varieties, were grown in sand culture. Field moisture capacity was maintained during the period of observation. After 14 days of growth, data were collected on the emergence percentages, above ground growth, above ground oven dry weights, below ground growth, and below ground oven dry weights. Under the conditions of this investigation, depth of planting was more highly related to the emergence and development of the seedlings than any other factor. The most favorable depth of planting was 2.5 centimeters. In general , hybrids were superior to standard open pollinated lines. The above ground oven dry weights of the seedlings increased in direct proportion to air temperature; the below ground oven dry weights decreased with increased temperatures. Top firing of the leaves was observed at 40 centimeters for all cultivars tested.

Thesis (M.A. Agricultural Management (Plant Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2017 / Nemafric-BL and Nemarioc-AL phytonematicides, which are being researched and developed to serve as alternatives to methyl bromide, have not been tested against plant growth and accumulation of essential nutrient elements in watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) cultivars. The objectives of this study were two fold, to determine the (1) overall growth responses and accumulation of selected essential nutrient elements in watermelon cultivars ‘Congo’ and ‘Charleston Gray’ and suppression of Meloidogyne javanica in response to increasing concentrations of Nemafric-BL and Nemarioc-AL phytonematicides, and (2) efficacy of Velum, Nemafric-BL and Nemarioc-AL phytonematicides on growth of watermelon, accumulation of selected essential nutrient elements in leaf tissues of cv. ‘Congo’ and the suppression of population densities of Meloidogyne species. Objective 1 and Objective 2 were achieved under greenhouse and field conditions, respectively. At 56 and 90 days after initiating the greenhouse and field treatments, respectively, the data were collected and subjected to statistical analyses. Nemafric-BL phytonematicide significantly affected growth of watermelon cultivars ‘Charleston Gray’ and ‘Congo’, whereas Nemarioc-AL phytonematicide did not have any significant effects on the plant variables of both cultivars. Generally, plant growth variables and increasing concentrations of Nemafric-BL phytonematicide had density-dependent growth (DDG) patterns, which were quantified through either positive or quadratic equations (Chapter 3). In contrast, both phytonematicides had significant effects on selected nutrient elements in leaf tissues of both watermelon cultivars. The affected nutrient elements, P, Mn and Na versus increasing concentrations of phytonematicides exhibited the DDG patterns, which were also quantified through either positive or quadratic equations (Chapter 3). The phytonematicides were consistent in suppressing nematode numbers in both watermelon cultivars. Comparison of synthetic nematicide Velum and the two phytonematicides under field conditions suggested that, relative to untreated control, the three products each stimulated growth of watermelon cv. ‘Congo’. The efficacy of Nemafric-BL and Nemarioc-AL phytonematicides on suppression of population densities of Meloidogyne species was comparable to that of Velum. In conclusion, Nemafric-BL and Nemarioc-BL phytonematicides were highly effective in managing population densities of Meloidogyne species in watermelon cultivars and also affected the partitioning of selected nutrient elements in tissues. The study provided essential information that could assist in decision-making in nematode management in watermelon production, particularly in fertiliser application.

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Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and Recreation Resources / Dale J. Bremer / Turfgrass covers 1.9% of the nation’s surface area and is the largest irrigated crop in the USA. Developed urbanized land is projected to double by 2025, which will increase turf’s environmental impact. Studies were conducted to evaluate environmental impacts by characterizing nitrogen, carbon, and water fluxes in turfgrass ecosystems. Emissions of nitrous oxide (N[subscript]2O), a major greenhouse gas and ozone depleter were measured from bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L. Pers. x C. transvaalensis Burtt-Davy) (bermuda), perennial ryegrass, (Lolium perenne L.) (rye), and zoysiagrass, (Zoysia japonica Steud.) (zoysia) under regional N management. In a separate study, N2O fluxes were measured from bermuda fertilized with controlled-release N fertilizers including polymer-coated and organic-N, and quick release urea. Emissions of N2O were measured using static surface chambers and gas chromatography. Zoysia, with less N requirements, had lower emissions than bermuda. Cumulative N[subscript]2O emissions were similar among N types. To measure water and carbon fluxes, a portable non-steady state chamber was designed and tested. The chamber had minimal affects to the canopy during field measurements: leak values averaged <1.5 micromol CO[subscript]2 m[superscript]-2 s[superscript]-1; average chamber pressure was 0.09 Pa ±0.01 Pa; temperature rise inside the chamber averaged 0.74C; and the chamber had 90% photosynthetically active radiation transmittance. Using the chamber, differences were detected in net photosynthesis (Pnet), gross photosynthesis (Pg), evapotranspiration (ET), canopy stomatal conductance (gc), and water use efficiency (WUE) in well-watered tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) (KBG), zoysia, and bermuda. Irrigation requirements, visual quality ratings, and genetic rooting potential of 28 KBG cultivars and 2 Texas bluegrass hybrids (P. pratensis x P. arachnifera Torr.) were quantified in greenhouse and rainout facility studies. Average water applied ranged from 23.4 to 40.0 cm among cultivars. Bedazzled, Preakness, and Bartitia required less water and had higher average quality than other cultivars. Compact America and Mid-Atlantic phenotypes exhibited greatest potential for success in integrating reduced water inputs with maintenance of acceptable visual quality. Results indicated that turfgrass management could mitigate N[subscript]2O emissions and conserve water while maintaining healthy turfgrass, and the new chamber will enhance turfgrass studies by providing rapid measurements of photosynthesis.

Master of Science / Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and Recreation Resources / Jack D. Fry / Dollar spot, caused by Sclerotinia homoeocarpa F.T. Bennett, and silvery-thread moss (Bryum argenteum Hedw.) are pests affecting creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) that typically require pesticide inputs. New strategies for pest management may reduce chemical inputs. The objectives of these 2009-2010 field studies were to evaluate: 1) creeping bentgrass cultivars for dollar spot susceptibility; 2) alternative chemical controls for silvery-thread moss; and 3) the response of silvery-thread moss to nitrogen (N) sources. During peak dollar spot development, ‘Declaration’, ‘A-4’, and ‘Crenshaw’ had 7.5, 139.4, and 288.9 infection centers m[superscript]-2 under fairway and 2.1, 27.2, and 106.9 infection centers m[superscript]-2 under putting green conditions, respectively. Two spring and two fall spot applications of sodium or potassium bicarbonate (45 g a.i. L[superscript]-1), premixed essential oil, and broadcast applications of carfentrazone-ethyl at 0.09 kg a.i. ha[superscript]-1 suppressed moss 39% to 55% compared to untreated in 2009. Spot sprays of sodium or potassium bicarbonate, and essential oil, were phytotoxic to creeping bentgrass and required up to 8 or 18 days, respectively, to return to acceptable quality. Fertilization with liquid urea (N at 16.3 kg ha[superscript]-1 biweekly, 210 kg ha[superscript]-1 annually) resulted in 147%, 150%, and 155% more moss than fertilization with IBDU, organic N, and granular urea, respectively, and 156% more moss compared to untreated. Fertilization with urea (liquid or granular) resulted in the best creeping bentgrass color. Averaged across the entire season, plots treated with organic N had unacceptable color in 2009. Nitrogen concentrations in moss tissue ranged from 0.4% to 1.0% and were always significantly lower than N concentrations observed in creeping bentgrass (1.1% to 2.1%), regardless of treatment. In 2010, moss treated with liquid urea had higher tissue N concentrations (1.0%) than untreated moss (0.5%) or that fertilized with IBDU (0.4%). In summary, use of dollar spot-resistant creeping bentgrass cultivars could reduce fungicide requirements. Bicarbonate and essential oil products can reduce moss severity at a similar level to carfentrazone-ethyl, but rates and/or application methods need to be optimized to avoid injury to creeping bentgrass. Applications of liquid urea enhanced moss coverage in creeping bentgrass compared to other N sources.