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Master of Science / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / James S. Drouillard / Two trials were conducted to evaluate effects of crude glycerin, a byproduct of the biodiesel industry, on feedlot performance, carcass characteristics, and diet digestibility in cattle. A third study was conducted to investigate the use of glycerin as a solvent in Maillard reaction processes used to manufacture value added protein meal. In trial 1, crossbred yearling heifers were fed low levels of glycerin (0, 0.5, or 2% of diet DM) in corn finishing diets, or diets that combined corn with soybean hulls and wet distiller’s grains (0 or 2% glycerin). Results indicated that feeding glycerin decreased DMI (P = 0.04), and feeding byproducts increased DMI (P < 0.01) when compared to control without byproducts or glycerin. Feeding byproducts or glycerin decreased the percentage of carcasses that graded USDA Choice or higher (P < 0.05). Other live performance traits and carcass characteristics were similar across treatments. Trial 2 evaluated effects of crude glycerin on growth performance and diet digestibility in heifers fed high forage growing diets. Treatments consisted of 0, 4, or 8% crude glycerin added to growing diets containing corn silage (60% of DM) and wet corn gluten feed. Apparent total tract digestibilities were calculated from total fecal collections. Adding glycerin linearly increased (P = 0.01) feed efficiency over the entire feeding period, and linearly decreased (P = 0.02) DMI for a portion of the feeding period. No other effects of glycerin on animal growth performance were observed. Digestibility measurements indicated that glycerin decreased DM, OM, and NDF intakes linearly (P < 0.01), but did not affect fecal outputs of DM, OM, or NDF. Apparent total tract digestibilities of DM, OM, and NDF therefore decreased linearly (P < 0.01) with increasing levels of glycerin. The third trial involved several experiments, which were conducted to determine if glycerol could be used as a solvent in processes designed to facilitate non-enzymatic browning of protein meals. Results indicated that glycerol may serve as a more suitable solvent for browning processes than water because its chemical and physical properties may enhance browning processes, increase process efficiency, and yield products with superior resistance to microbial degradation.

Master of Science / Department of Anatomy and Physiology / Lisa C. Freeman / Kansas State University uses a variety of animals to fulfill the University’s research and teaching mission. K-State maintains a single Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) to oversee the use of all vertebrate animals used in research and teaching at K-State. K-State’s program is AAALAC accredited. The Association for the Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, International (AAALAC) is a non-profit organization with the mission to promote the humane care of animals used in research and teaching. AAALAC is a private member association that evaluates and accredits member organizations by utilizing a peer review process. Accreditation signifies that an animal care and use program goes beyond meeting minimum standards required by law and strives for excellence to better meet the needs of the animals in their care. However, K-State’s accreditation is university-limited, meaning not all colleges that use animals for research and teaching are accredited. The College of Agriculture is not included in the accreditation even though it supports 15 animal facilities within the Department of Animal Science & Industry (AS&I) and 2 facilities located at Agricultural Experiment Stations (AES). Species housed in these facilities include; cattle, horses, swine, sheep, goats, and poultry. AAALAC reports that accreditation of agricultural animal programs lags behind other animal research and teaching programs. This may be due to multiple factors such as; minimal research funding sources require institutions to be accredited, minimal funding to make necessary facility upgrades, and a lack of conviction of how accreditation may benefit an agricultural animal program. This paper begins to discuss the scope of the program, identify common deficiencies, and provide suggestions for program improvement. As public pressure increases to improve care of animals in research and agricultural settings, it would benefit K-State to accredit all the institution’s animal facilities. The IACUC is a key player in this effort but support from K-State institutional leadership and the College of Agriculture is paramount. Those at K-State know the importance of the care we provide the animals in our facilities, but obtaining AAALAC accreditation will show our peers, supporting institutions, and our students that we strive for excellence in care of all our animals.

Master of Science / Department of Grain Science and Industry / Keith C. Behnke / Three experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) on pellet quality and pellet mill performance in pelleted swine diets. The experiments were completed at the Feed Processing Research Center in the Department of Grain Science at Kansas State University. In all experiments, pellet durability index (PDI), electrical energy consumption, production rate, and bulk density served as the response criteria. In Exp. 1, DDGS were substituted on an equal weight basis for corn, with substitution levels of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%. The diet was not adjusted to maintain equal nutrient levels across the treatments. There were no observed significant differences in pellet quality across all levels of DDGS substitution. Both production rate and bulk density were significantly lowered as DDGS level increased. In Exp. 2, diets were formulated to contain the same levels of DDGS, but all ingredients were allowed to vary to retain nutritionally similar diets. In this case energy consumption showed no significant differences among treatments, while pellet quality, throughput, and bulk density were all negatively affected by increasing levels of DDGS. In Exp. 3, the effect of incorporating pelleted and reground DDGS was evaluated. The levels of DDGS evaluated were 10%, 20%, and 30%, using the same diets as Exp. 2. These diets were then pelleted and compared to a control diet with no added DDGS and to diets with unprocessed DDGS added at the same levels. At levels above 10% the diets containing unprocessed DDGS had significantly lower pellet quality than the control, while the diets containing pelleted and reground DDGS showed no significant difference from the control at any level. Significant effects were also observed for production rate, energy consumption, and bulk density. In conclusion, the use of standard DDGS in pelleted feeds is feasible, and although pellet quality may be significantly lower for feeds containing DDGS, the practical value is likely not affected. Furthermore, the data demonstrates some benefits of using DDGS that have been pelleted and reground.

Master of Science / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Joel M. DeRouchey / Seven experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of alfalfa and cornstalk round bale processing type on animal performance, wastage, preference, and mixing characteristics. All bales were baled using a round baler (John Deere) that had the ability to cut forage being baled prior to wrapping. This machine processed all bales used in these experiments, with those termed conventional being baled with the cutter disengaged. In Exp. 1, 46 heifers (initially 270 kg BW) were used in a 27 d experiment with ADG being higher (P < 0.01) for heifers consuming precut alfalfa compared to conventional alfalfa in ring feeders. However, there was no difference in final BW (P = 0.56) between conventional and precut treatments. In Exp. 2, 46 heifers were used to show there was no (P > 0.05) difference in forage wastage from ring feeders between precut or conventional alfalfa. In Exp. 3, 26 beef heifers, (initially 305 kg) were used to show that there was no (P = 0.48) difference in the preference of conventional alfalfa or precut alfalfa when offered simultaneously in different ring feeders for 2 d. In Exp. 4, 75 bulls (initially 317 kg BW) were used to show that tub ground bales had smaller TMR particle size (P = 0.01) than TMR’s with conventional or precut alfalfa bales. In Exp. 5, 60 heifers (initially 332 kg BW) were used to show that different discharge locations from each of the different cornstalk treatments had similar (P > 0.11) DM, CP, ADF, and NDF. Mixing time and fuel usage of a vertical mixer were evaluated in Exp. 6 and 7. In Exp. 6, bale mixing time was shorter (P < 0.05) for precut alfalfa compared to conventional alfalfa bales. Fuel usage per bale was lower (P < 0.001) for precut alfalfa bales compared to conventional alfalfa bales. In Exp. 7, precut cornstalk bale mixing time was shorter (P < 0.001) than conventional cornstalk bales. Fuel usage was similar (P > 0.05) among precut and conventionally-processed cornstalk bales. In conclusion, precutting alfalfa or cornstalk bales prior to net wrapping improved heifer performance and decreased mixing time and tractor fuel usage, but did not affect wastage and preference.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / James S. Drouillard / Beta-adrenergic agonists, which are synthetic catecholamines, increase rate of gain, improve feed efficiency, and decrease carcass fat, when fed to cattle before slaughter. However, little attention has been given to the potential effects of beta-adrenergic agonists on the rumen ecosystem. Natural catecholamines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, have been observed to stimulate bacterial growth. The objectives of this research were to determine if ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) a synthetic catecholamine has direct effects on growth and fermentation products of ruminal bacteria, and to determine the effects of protein source on ruminal fermentation and proteolysis when cattle are fed RAC. The effects of varying concentrations of RAC on ruminal fermentation were evaluated in vitro. Ractopamine hydrochloride had a quadratic effect on in vitro gas production (P < 0.05). Total VFA production was not changed with RAC (P > 0.50). Different concentrations of RAC were evaluated in vitro with different nitrogen sources to determine effects of nitrogen degradability on response to RAC. There was an interaction between RAC and nitrogen substrate (P < 0.01), with more degradable forms of nitrogen eliciting greater changes in in vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) with RAC supplementation. Significant main effects also were detected for RAC, substrate, and hour (P < 0.001). In vitro analysis of proteolysis revealed that RAC lowered ammonia and amino acid concentrations (P < 0.001). In vivo ruminal ammonia concentrations also were lower when RAC was fed in combination with dry-rolled corn, but not when fed in conjunction with steam-flaked corn (grain processing × RAC, P < 0.01). Addition of RAC, steam-flaked corn, and distiller’s grains (DG) all resulted in lower ruminal ammonia concentrations (P < 0.01). Amino acid concentrations were decreased when RAC was added to diets with DG but were unchanged in diets without added DG (DG × RAC, P < 0.05). Results from these studies suggest that RAC affects fermentation by ruminal microflora. However, there were no differences in growth or fermentative end products of pure bacterial cultures with the addition of RAC (P > 0.10). Overall beta-adrenergic agonists alter ruminal fermentation, which could have important implications for diet formulation.

Master of Science / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Evan C. Titgemeyer / Two experiments quantified effects of supplemental protein and energy on forage digestion and urea kinetics in beef cattle. In experiment 1, energy treatments included: control, 600 g glucose dosed ruminally once daily, and 480 g VFA infused ruminally over 8 h daily. Casein was dosed ruminally once daily (120 or 240 g). Cattle (208 kg) had ad libitum access to low-quality hay (5.8% protein). Infusion of VFA decreased forage intake by 27%. Glucose decreased NDF digestibility. Microbial N flow was greater for 240 than for 120 g/d casein, but was not affected by energy. Retained N increased with casein supply. Urea-N entry rate (UER) and gut entry of urea-N (GER) were not affected by energy, casein, or interactions, but GER/UER was less when 240 rather than 120 g/d casein was provided. Compared to VFA, glucose tended to increase GER/UER. Glucose led to more microbial uptake of recycled urea than VFA. In these young calves, changes in N and energy supply did not greatly impact urea kinetics, likely because increased N was largely retained. In experiment 2, treatments included: 0 or 1.2 kg glucose, and 240 or 480 g casein. Cattle (391 kg) were fed low-quality hay (4.7% protein). Glucose reduced forage intake by 18%, whereas casein did not affect it, and depressed fiber digestion. Microbial N flow to the duodenum and retained N increased as casein increased, but neither was affected by glucose. Increasing casein increased UER 50%. Urinary urea-N increased as casein increased; moreover, GER numerically increased 25% as casein increased. GER/UER decreased as casein increased. Glucose decreased urinary urea, but did not change UER or GER. Microbial uptake of recycled urea was least for steers receiving 480 g/d casein with no glucose, reflecting that this treatment exceeded ruminal requirement for N. In these more mature steers, increases in N intake increased UER, reflecting that only small proportions of the increased N intake were retained. Thus, as steer maturity increased, UER and GER increased, likely because less N was retained. These studies demonstrate the influence of urea recycling in meeting N needs of cattle fed low-quality forage.

Master of Science / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Jim L. Nelssen / Seven experiments were conducted to estimate the optimal standardized ileal digestible (SID) lysine:ME ratio for growing and finishing pigs. Experiment 1 determined an optimal SID lysine:ME ratio of 3.16 g/Mcal for 38 to 65 kg gilts. Experiment 2 reported an optimal level of 2.58 g SID lysine/Mcal ME for 55 to 80 kg gilts. Experiment 3 determined an optimal SID lysine:ME ratio of 2.55 g/Mcal for 85 to 110 kg gilts. In Exp. 4 and 5, growth rates were improved with porcine circovirus type 2 vaccine, with the optimal SID lysine:ME ratio for 38 to 65 kg gilts and barrows being 2.99 and 3.36 g SID lysine/Mcal ME, respectively. In Exp. 6 and 7, the optimal SID lysine:ME ratio was 1.86 and 2.61 g/Mcal for 102 to 125 kg gilts and 98 to 118 kg barrows, respectively. These trials indicate the optimal SID lysine:ME ratio for commercial growing and finishing pigs has increased compared with earlier estimates. Four experiments were also performed to determine the effect of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) supplementation on growth performance of weanling pigs. In Exp. 1, both 3,000 ppm Zn from zinc oxide (ZnO) and 150 ppm Cu from tri-basic copper chloride (TBCC) independently improved growth performance in weanling pigs due to increased feed intake. Similar results were observed in Exp. 2, where 3,000 ppm Zn from ZnO increased ADG and ADFI. Also, 125 ppm Cu from copper sulfate (CuSO4) increased growth rate due to enhanced feed intake, with Cu supplementation from TBCC offering intermediate results to CuSO4 and no Cu supplementation. For the first 28-d of Exp. 3, similar additive responses were observed to adding Cu and Zn to the diets of weanling pigs. However, from d 28 to 42 the combined use of Cu and Zn produced decreased performance compared each used singularly. Similarly in Exp.4, CuSO4 and ZnO improved growth performance, however the benefit was not additive. These trials showed growth promoting advantages to adding Cu and Zn to weanling diets, but additive responses were inconsistent.

Muscle fiber architecture, innervation, and differences in fiber-type composition were examined in the gluteus medius of four horses. In the anatomical part of this study, the gluteus medius of four adult horses were extracted, soaked in a 10% formalin solution, and examined for fiber architecture and innervation patterns. Based on architectural and innervation differences, two distinct anatomical compartments were defined: the dorsal region and the ventral region. The histochemical portion of this study examined the fiber composition of each region by classifying the fiber types on the basis of myosin-ATPase. The dorsal region had a significantly higher percentage of Type I fibers than the ventral region; whereas the ventral region had a significantly higher percentage of Type IIB fibers than the dorsal region. These findings suggest that this subdivided structure may be designed to allow functional independence within the muscle.