Globalization is a fact in a lot of businesses today, something that is also relevant in the real estate industry. The currency differs depending on where investments are made and as a result of this real estate investors also face currency risks in addition to all other real estate related risks they already need to manage. The management of currency risk can have different forms, and the purpose of this thesis is to find out how, if and why real estate investors, especially Swedish, hedge this risk. To create an understanding of the issue, a summary of some theories on the currency market and real estate market can be found in the thesis. Only a small amount of research exists on the subject in Sweden and the theories are mainly from foreign studies and the currency risk management from other business sectors. These theories, combined with the research questions, have formed the questions for the interviews this study is made of. Debt in the local currency of where the investment is made can be seen as a natural hedge for the currency risk. Reduced loan-to-value (LTV) ratios from banks for real estate investments have led to a situation where loans, which can cannot be used to the same extent. That makes it more interesting to find out which other instruments are being used to avoid the currency risk and if the real estate investors wants to avoid it at all. The purpose of this thesis is to find the answers to these questions. The interviewed consultancy firms and banks as well as the investors themselves state that the currency risk is a risk that should not occur in Swedish real estate investments on markets with a different currency. The reason for this is that the real estate assets should be the primary focus of the business. To hedge this risk, bank loans and currency futures are the most frequently used instruments by Swedish real estate investors. / Globalization is a fact in a lot of businesses today, something that is also relevant in the real estate industry. The currency differs depending on where investments are made and as a result of this real estate investors also face currency risks in addition to all other real estate related risks they already need to manage. The management of currency risk can have different forms, and the purpose of this thesis is to find out how, if and why real estate investors, especially Swedish, hedge this risk. To create an understanding of the issue, a summary of some theories on the currency market and real estate market can be found in the thesis. Only a small amount of research exists on the subject in Sweden and the theories are mainly from foreign studies and the currency risk management from other business sectors. These theories, combined with the research questions, have formed the questions for the interviews this study is made of. Debt in the local currency of where the investment is made can be seen as a natural hedge for the currency risk. Reduced loan-to-value (LTV) ratios from banks for real estate investments have led to a situation where loans, which can cannot be used to the same extent. That makes it more interesting to find out which other instruments are being used to avoid the currency risk and if the real estate investors wants to avoid it at all. The purpose of this thesis is to find the answers to these questions. The interviewed consultancy firms and banks as well as the investors themselves state that the currency risk is a risk that should not occur in Swedish real estate investments on markets with a different currency. The reason for this is that the real estate assets should be the primary focus of the business. To hedge this risk, bank loans and currency futures are the most frequently used instruments by Swedish real estate investors.

In the first part thesis describes theoretical basis about international business and exchange rate risk. The practical part focuses on analysis of the company through analysis of competition, financial analysis and SWOT analysis. Integrated overview is supplemented by exchange rate risk analysis. In the last part of thesis there are specific options of elimination exchange rate risk.

Diploma thesis deals with problem whether fiscal policy has an impact on development of currency exchange rate. The first aim of the thesis is to describe some theoretical models which consider possibilities of relationship between fiscal policy and currency exchange rate and to give a notice where can be differences. The thesis introduces a function of fiscal policy, a creation of currency exchange rate and describes an environment of exchange market. Currency exchange rate is stable on its market defined value in the long term. I suppose also that interventions of leaders of fiscal policy can not influence currency exchange rate positively. On the other hand, there could be a negative impact on currency exchange rate by leaders of fiscal policy. The second aim of the thesis is to analyze an impact of government debt on development of currency exchange rate, mainly are analyzed the Czech republic, Great Britain and some other selected countries of the European union. In the thesis are provided macroeconomic data of mentioned countries, mainly government debt to gross domestic product, budget deficit to gross domestic product, development of currency exchange rate and some information about macroeconomic situation of countries. Final part of the thesis provides an analysis of an impact of debt on currency exchange rate (correlation analysis, graphical comparing).

Ladygienė, Živilė. (2007) Valiutinės rizikos valdymas įmonėje. Magistro baigiamasis darbas. Kaunas Vilniaus Universiteteas, Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas. 61 p. SANTRAUKA Raktiniai žodžiai: Valiuta, valiutos kursas, valiutinė rizika, valiutinės rizikos valdymas, apsidraudimo priemonės. Darbo objektas – valiutinės rizikos valdymas. Darbo tikslas: Pateikti įmonei valiutinės rizikos valdymo sistemą. Darbo uždaviniai: 1. Apžvelgti veiksnius kurie turi įtakos valiutinės rizikos atsiradimui. 2. Įvertinti patiriamos rizikos lygį tiriamojoje įmonėje panaudojant matematines skaičiuotes. 3. Išnagrinėti priemones kurios gali turėti įtakos valiutinės rizikos valdymui. 4. Pateikti pasiūlymus kaip įmonė gali valdyti valiutinę riziką. Darbo rezultatai. Pasirinktas valiutinės rizikos valdymo modelis suteikia galimybes įvertinti valiutinę riziką, pasirinkti adekvačias apsidraudimo priemones ir prognozuoti laukiamus rezultatus. Šis modelis apima visus valiutinės rizikos valdymo ciklus. Tai leidžia įmonei išmatuoti riziką, pasirinkti finansinius valiutinės rizikos valdymo instrumentus. Pagal valiutinės rizikos valdymo modelį buvo sudarytas valiutinis balansas, apskaičiuota atvira užsienio valiutos pozicija, variacijos/kovariacijos metodu apskaičiuota rizikos vertė, parinktos tinkamiausios apsidraudimo primonės valiutinei rizikai valdyti. Buvo palyginti nuostoliai kuriuos patyrė įmonė nevaldydama valiutinės rizikos ir jei būtų pritaikytos išvestinės apsidraudimo priemonės, įmonė būtų patyrusi... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Ladygienė, Živilė. (2007) Currency risk managament in enterprise. MBA Graduation Paper: Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Vilnius University. 61 p. SUMMARY Keywors: currency, currency exchange rate, currency risk, currency risk managament, hedging instruments. The object of a scientific research – currency exchange risk management. Tasks: 1) to systematise the factors influencing currency exchange risk; 2) to assess the level of risk in enterprise; 3) to analyze modern hedging methods and means aimed to control currency exchange rate risk and determine the possibility of their application in enterprise; 4) to proffer suggestion how enterprise can manage currency risk. Choosed currency exchange rate risk management model gives conditions to realistically estimate currency exchange rate risk, choose adequate hedging instruments and forecast financial results for an enterprise. This model covers all the stages of the management cycle of currency exchange rate risk. Using this model made: currency exchange balance and calculation of open currency exchange positions for determining the risk; quantitative measurement variance/covariance method for measuring risk; choosing hedging means and instruments based on terms. It allows enterprise to measure the risk, choose adequate risk management instruments, forecast financial result and cash flows of the enterprise. The results of currency exchange rate risk managing in enterprise were that damage of rate risk was 10 times smoler when not... [to full text]

Актуальность темы исследования обуславливается тем, что денежно-кредитная политика наряду с фискальной является средством, с помощью которых государственные органы в рыночной экономике регулярно влияют на темпы и направление общей экономической активности, что включает не только уровень совокупного выпуска и занятости, но и общие темпы роста или изменения цен. Целью магистерской диссертации является исследование разработка направлений совершенствования инструментов денежно-кредитной политики, используемых Центральным Банком для обеспечения устойчивости финансовой системы государства. На современном этапе развития экономики России отмечается эффективное функционирование Банка России, а также всей банковской системы, которая способна предоставлять финансовые ресурсы крупным и средним организациям, а также малым предприятиям, составляющим базис рыночной экономики. Стабильное развитие российской экономики во многом зависит от эффективности проводимой Банком России денежно-кредитной политики. Банк России может и должен укреплять российскую экономику за счет увеличения выдаваемых кредитов в рублях, конечными бенефициарами которых станут предприятия реальной экономики. Банку России необходимо снижать ключевую ставку, используя опыт развитых стран, до уровня, который будет способствовать развитию отечественной экономики. Необходимо запустить программу кредитования банков по процентным ставкам ниже рыночных при условии выделения последними ресурсов для кредитования нефинансовых секторов экономики, то есть реального сектора. В результате за счет совершенствования денежно-кредитной политики Банка России в 2022-2024 гг. возможно снижение уровня инфляции до 4%, возрастание доли кредитов к уровню ВВП до 62, а ВВП в 2024 перейдет от падения к росту до 103%. / The relevance of the research topic is because monetary policy, along with fiscal policy, is a means by which government agencies in a market economy regularly influence the pace and direction of overall economic activity, which includes not only the level of aggregate output and employment, but also overall growth rates. or price changes. The purpose of the master's thesis is to study the development of ways to improve the monetary policy instruments used by the Central Bank to ensure the stability of the state's financial system. At the present stage of development of the Russian economy, there is an effective functioning of the Bank of Russia, as well as the entire banking system, which can provide financial resources to large and medium-sized organizations, as well as small enterprises that form the basis of a market economy. The stable development of the Russian economy largely depends on the effectiveness of the monetary policy pursued by the Bank of Russia. The Bank of Russia can and should strengthen the Russian economy by increasing its lending in rubles, the ultimate beneficiaries of which will be enterprises in the real economy. The Bank of Russia needs to reduce the key rate, using the experience of developed countries, to a level that will contribute to the development of the domestic economy. It is necessary to launch a program of lending to banks at interest rates below market rates, provided that the latter allocate resources for lending to non-financial sectors of the economy, that is, the real sector. As a result, by improving the monetary policy of the Bank of Russia in 2022-2024. it is possible to reduce the inflation rate to 4%, increase the share of loans to the level of GDP to 62, and GDP in 2024 will move from falling to growing to 103%.

Research object – Risk of international settlements. The aim of this work is to analyze the process of the management of international settlements risk and foresee the opportunities of risk management in Lithuania. The set tasks for achieving the aim of this research: to introduce the understanding of international settlements risk; to set the kinds of international settlements risk; to set the process of the management of international settlements risk; to set the international settlements risk management means; to set the usage opportunities of these means in Lithuania. There are four kinds of international settlements risk described in this work: political, liquidity, currency rate range and economical risk. There are introduced means of risk management for every kind of risk in this work. There you can also find opportunities of usage of international settlements risk management in Lithuania. Research methods: analysis and synthesis of literature, logical analysis and synthesis, statistics analysis.

The main aim of this thesis is to evaluate both short term and long term impact of foreign exchange interventions, which were initiated by Czech central bank in November 2015, on the Czech economy. The first part of the text deals with theoretical aspects of the thesis, especially with the role of central bank and exchange rate, and with the historical development of both the monetary policy in the Czech Republic and Czech crown. Second part of the work investigates the causes that have led to the initiation of intervention régime and tries to clarify whether the triggering was truly justified. The main part of the thesis deals with the launch of interventions itself and also with the short term and longterm impacts on macroeconomic indicators. The end of the work is dedicated to a discussion of intervention regime exit, both to the time aspect and possible scenarios.

他國低估匯率造成貿易嚴重扭曲問題近年來越發受到重視，而美國國會為解決主要貿易對手國長期壓抑匯率以提升出口競爭力，導致美國貿易赤字不斷上升之問題，遂陸續提出諸多匯率改革相關法案，期望以具體之制裁手段防止他國持續刻意壓低匯率。 本文先以美國現行法案──1988年匯率與國際經濟政策協調法案作為出發點，探討美國現行法案之不足，以點出美國國會為何認為有於後續改革法案中加入制裁手段之必要，並得出2010年公平貿易貨幣改革法案與2011年貨幣匯率監督改革法案此二法案所提倡之將他國根本性匯率低估或匯率失調情形視為可課徵平衡稅之補貼，為國會多數支持之手段。再以經濟學及國際貿易法學之分析連貫後續討論：匯率低估是否等同對進口課徵關稅並對出口提供補貼？2010年公平貿易貨幣改革法案與2011年貨幣匯率監督改革法案欲將他國根本性匯率低估或匯率失調情形視為可課徵平衡稅之補貼，是否符合WTO有關補貼之規範？前者以Staiger及Sykes兩位學者使用之兩國兩財模型作為討論主軸，後者則以補貼三要件──「財務補助」、「受有利益」及「特定性」加以檢驗。最後皆得出匯率低估僅在特定之情況下始可能構成補貼之結論。 惟在研究過程中，本文發現若僅單憑國際貿易法學之角度去解析匯率低估是否構成補貼，將受法律文字之主觀影響而導致某些謬誤產生。為解決此一問題，本文乃提出以經濟學之分析輔佐國際貿易法裁決之建議，以期能提升國際貿易法裁決之客觀性與公平性。 / The serious trade distortion problem caused by currency undervaluation has given rise to more and more attention. The United States also faces the increasing trade deficit problem caused by some major trading partners that manipulate the value of their currencies in relation to the United States dollar to gain export competitive advantage. The U.S. Congress thus brings up many currency exchange rate reform acts, hoping to use the specific sanction policies to prevent other countries from intentionally depressing exchange rates consistently. This article starts from the U.S. currency act in force──Exchange Rates and International Economic Policy Coordination Act of 1988 to discover the insufficiency in order to point out why the U.S. Congress consider it necessary to put the sanction policies in follow-up currency reform acts. We then conclude that the policies that brought up by "Currency Reform for Fair Trade Act (2010)" and "Currency Exchange Rate Oversight Reform Act of 2011" to deem the "fundamentally undervalued currency" or "misaligned currency" as contervailable subsidies come out in favor of the majority of the U.S. Congress. Follow up we use the analysis of the economies and international trade laws to link the following discussion: is the currency undervaluation equals to import tariffs and export subsidies? Are the policies that deem the "fundamentally undervalued currency" or "misaligned currency" as contervailable subsidies consistent with the WTO’s subsidy regulations? The former one is discussed with the "two countries and two goods model" brought up by Staiger and Sykes while the latter one is examined by three elements: "financial contribution", "benefits" and "specific". The answers are both that the currency undervaluation will be contervailable subsidy in some very specific cases. However, during this research, we find out that if just use the view of international trade laws to analyze whether the currency undervaluation is a contervailable subsidy, we may be affected by the literalism and make mistakes. To solve this problem, we recommend that using the analysis of economies to support the ruling of international trade laws, hoping to increase the objectivity and fairness.