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Os frugívoros desempenham papel fundamental na regeneração e controle de plantas em florestas tropicais, por meio da dispersão e predação de sementes. Na floresta Atlântica, as populações dos grandes frugívoros encontram-se altamente ameaçadas pela defaunação e fragmentação do habitat o que pode comprometer as interações e consequentemente os serviços ecológicos prestados pela fauna. Meu objetivo neste estudo, foi identificar os principais mamíferos que atuam na frugivoria na Floresta Atlântica, analisar as redes de frugivoria entre mamíferos, aves e plantas em um gradiente de defaunação e também avaliar as relações entre predadores e frugívoros diante do contexto da defaunação na Floresta Atlântica. Para isso, instalei armadilhas fotográficas sob árvores que estavam frutificando em seis áreas da Floresta Atlântica no sudeste de São Paulo e averiguamos a atuação dos visitantes e frugívoros. Para atender aos objetivos, utilizei análises de regressão linear, modelos de rede de interações e modelos lineares generalizados. Encontrei que as principais plantas que tiveram seus frutos removidos pertencem a família das Myrtaceae, Arecaceae e Rubiaceae e os principais frugívoros que removeram frutos foram majoritariamente predadores de sementes, como o esquilo (Guerlinguetus brasiliensis), pequenos roedores em geral, as queixadas (Tayassu pecari) e a paca (Cuniculus paca). Identifiquei que apenas um baixo percentual do número de visitas (5,6%), culminaram em frugivoria e que mesmo em áreas com baixo grau de defaunação, a frugivoria foi realizada principalmente por pequenos roedores e aves generalistas. Por fim, encontrei que pequenos frugívoros evitam temporalmente áreas com alta frequência dos grandes frugívoros e que os grandes frugívoros evitam os potenciais predadores. Porém, em áreas com alto grau de defaunação, esse padrão de visitação nem sempre é encontrado em todos os grupos estudados. Os resultados indicam que a defaunação pode alterar as interações entre plantas, frugívoros e predadores na Floresta Atlântica e que atualmente, os principais frugívoros que atuam na remoção de frutos no chão da floresta, são os pequenos e médios mamíferos e aves generalistas. As alterações nas interações de frugivoria poderá afetar quantitativamente e qualitativamente, os processos seguintes, como a dispersão de sementes e o recrutamento de plântulas. / The frugivores play a fundamental role in the regeneration and control of plants in tropical forests, through seed dispersal and predation. In the Atlantic forest, large vertebrates are highly threatened by habitat deforestation and fragmentation, which may compromise interactions and consequently ecological services provided by wildlife. The objective of this study was to identify the main frugivores species in the Atlantic Forest, to analyze the frugivory networks between mammals, birds and plants in a defaunation gradient, as well as to evaluate the relationships between predators and frugivores in the context of Atlantic Forest defaunation. To this end, we installed cameras trap under trees that were fruiting in six areas of the Atlantic Forest in southeastern São Paulo and investigated the performance of visitors and frugivores. To meet our objectives, we used linear regression analyzes, network models of interactions and generalized linear models. We found that the main plants that had their fruits removed belong to the family Myrtaceae, Arecaceae and Rubiaceae and the main frugivores that removed fruits are mostly seed predators, such as paca, squirrel, small rodents in general and white-lipped peccary. We also suggest that only a small percentage of the number of visits was aimed at frugivory and that even in areas with low defaunation, frugivory is mainly carried out by small rodents and generalist birds. Finally, we find that small frugivores temporarily avoid areas with high frequency of large frugivores and that large frugivores avoid potential predators. However, in areas with high defaunation, this pattern of avoidance is not always found in all groups studied. Our results suggest that the defaunation is altering the interactions between plants, frugivores and predators in the Atlantic Forest, and that the main frugivores that act to remove fruits on the forest floor are small and medium mammals and generalist birds. Changes in frugivory interactions may affect quantitatively and qualitatively the following processes, such as seed dispersal and seedling recruitment.

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No. of bitstreams: 1 bello-lozano_lc_dr_rcla.pdf: 6995897 bytes, checksum: 3eab07c5fa5a3be2ac3b78242a7a7f8e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-07-27 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / A extinção de animais é uma ameaça silenciosa nas florestas tropicais. As florestas tropicais estão se tornando ecossistemas defaunados, especialmente de animais de grande porte. No entanto, a defaunação vai além da perda de animais carismáticos, o que estamos perdendo são interações fundamentais que modulam a funcionalidade da floresta e, portanto, dos serviços ecossistêmicos associados. A defaunação tem efeitos sobre a dispersão de sementes, a ciclagem de nutrientes, a qualidade da água, a manipulação de matéria fecal, entre outros serviços ecossistêmicos. Nesta tese, exploramos os efeitos da defaunação de grandes animais no serviço ecosistêmico de estoque de carbono em florestas tropicais. Nós encontramos que o serviço ecossistêmico de armazenamento de carbono está sustentado pelos animais de grande porte, isso porque frugívoros grandes são os principais dispersores de árvores com sementes grandes e, as árvores com sementes grandes tendem a ser altas e com madeira densa, armazenando assim grandes quantidades de carbono. Portanto, a remoção de árvores de sementes grandes das florestas, devido à perda de dispersão induzida pela falta dos grandes frugívoros, pode reduzir o potencial do estoque de carbono da floresta. No entanto, a redução não é direta porque os frugívoros menores podem compensar parcialmente a perda dos grandes frugívoros. Além disso, a perda de grandes predadores de sementes também pode afetar o potencial estoque de carbono. Em comunidades fortemente defaunadas, pequenos roedores tendem a aumentar a sua abundância e a predação de sementes grandes, reduzindo assim o recrutamento deste tipo de árvore. Finalmente, nós exploramos o impacto da relação entre defaunação e o armazenamento potencial de carbono em programas de conservação. Nós mostramos que os projetos de restauração estão promovendo ecossistemas defaunados porque estes são dominados por árvores anemocóricas ou árvores de sementes pequenas que não irão fornecer recurso alimentar suficiente para animais grandes. Além disso, observamos que a falta de animais de grande porte pode produzir impactos econômicos nos mercados de carbono. Enfatizamos a necessidade urgente de integrar o papel dos animais em estratégias de restauração e mitigação das mudanças climáticas. O impacto econômico da defaunação no orçamento de carbono é um bom argumento para inserir os animais neste tipo de programas. Logo, devemos concentrar esforços no desenvolvimento de novas políticas nacionais e internacionais para proteger as florestas das "frentes de defaunação" assim como se tem feito com as “frentes de desmatamento." / Animal loss is a silent threat of forest ecosystem. Tropical forests are becoming defaunated ecosystems, especially defaunated of large animals. The loss of animals goes beyond than the loss of charismatic animals, what we are losing are key interactions that modulate the functionality of the forest and therefore of the associated ecosystem services. For instance, defaunation have effects over seed dispersal, nutrient cycling, water quality and dung removal among others ecosystem services. In this thesis, we explore the potential effects of defaunation of large animals in carbon stock ecosystem services of tropical forest. We found that the carbon stock ecosystem service is supported by large animals due to large frugivores are the main dispersers of large-seeded trees and, large-seeded trees tend to be tall trees with dense wood, therefore, store high quantities of carbon. Hence, the removal of large-seeded trees from the forest, because of diminished dispersal induced by the lack of large frugivores, reduce the carbon stock potential of the forest. However, the reduction is not straightforward because smaller frugivores can partially compensate for the loss of large frugivores. Moreover, strong defaunation effects in the seed predators communities can also affect the carbon stock potential of the forest. In strongly defaunated communities small rodents tend to increase their abundance and the predation pressure over large seeds, reducing their recruitment. In addition, we explore the impact of defaunation and carbon stock relation in conservation programs. We show that restoration projects are promoting defaunated ecosystems because they are dominated by abiotic trees or small-seeded trees, which will not provide enough food to large animals. Besides we observed that the lack of large animals can produce economic impacts in the carbon markets. Therefore, we argue the urgent necessity of integrating the animal role in restoration and climate mitigation strategies to. The economic impact of animal defaunation on carbon budget is a good argument to introduce animals in REED+ markets and forest restoration strategies. Within this evidence, we claim for the development of new national and international policy frames to protect forests from ‘defaunation fronts’ as well as has been done with ‘deforestation fronts’. / La extinción de animales es una amenaza silenciosa en los bosques tropicales. Los bosques tropicales se están convirtiendo en ecosistemas defaunados, especialmente despoblados de grandes animales. Esta pérdida de animales va más allá de la pérdida de animales carismáticos, lo que estamos perdiendo son interacciones clave que modulan la funcionalidad del bosque y, por lo tanto, de los servicios ecosistémicos asociados. Por ejemplo, la defaunación tiene efectos sobre la dispersión de semillas, el ciclo de nutrientes, la calidad del agua, la eliminación de excrementos, entre otros servicios de los ecosistemas. A través de esta tesis, exploramos los efectos potenciales de la defaunación de animales grandes en el servicio ecosistémico de almacenamiento de carbono de los bosques tropicales. Encontramos que el almacenamiento de carbono es soportado por animales grandes debido a que los frugívoros grandes son los principales dispersores de árboles con semillas grandes y, los árboles con semillas grandes tienden a ser árboles altos con madera densa, y consequentemente, almacenan altas cantidades de carbono. En consecuencia, la eliminación de árboles de semilla grande del bosque, debido a la dispersión disminuida inducida por la falta de grandes frugívoros, puede reducir el potencial de reserva de carbono del bosque. Sin embargo, la reducción no es directa debido a que los frugívoros más pequeños pueden compensar parcialmente la pérdida de frugívoros grandes. Además, los fuertes efectos de defaunación en las comunidades de depredadores de semillas también pueden afectar el potencial de reserva de carbono del bosque debido a que, en las comunidades fuertemente defaunadas los pequeños roedores tienden a aumentar su abundancia y la presión de depredación sobre las semillas grandes, reduciendo su reclutamiento. Finalmente, exploramos el impacto de la relación entre la defaunación y el potencial de carbono de los bosques tropicales en los programas de conservación. Mostramos que los proyectos de restauración están promoviendo ecosistemas defaunados porque están dominados por árboles abióticos o árboles de semilla pequeña, que no proporcionarán suficiente alimento a los animales grandes. Además, la falta de animales grandes puede producir impactos económicos en los mercados de carbono. Por lo tanto, recalcamos la necesidad urgente de integrar el papel de los animales en las estrategias de restauración y mitigación del cambio climático. El impacto económico de la defaunación de animales en los mercados de carbono es un buen argumento para introducir los animales en los proyectos REED+ y las estrategias de restauración forestal. A partir de estas evidencias, reivindicamos la necesidad de desarrollar nuevos marcos de políticas nacionales e internacionales para proteger los bosques de los "frentes de la defaunación", así como se ha hecho con los "frentes de deforestación". / FAPESP: 2013/22492-2 / FAPESP: 2015/23770-1

No description available.

Tropical rainforests contain exceptionally high biodiversity and account for >30% of the world's carbon fixed by photosynthesis. Consequently, there are compelling reasons to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms that maintain these highly diverse forests and of the potential long-term threats to their preservation. An important process shaping tropical plant communities is negative density dependence (NDD). NDD occurs when plant performance is negatively impacted by increased neighbourhood density. Reduced performance at high neighbourhood density is thought to arise through ecological interactions between plants and their natural enemies. Thus in a healthy ecosystem, trophic interactions play vital roles as mechanisms driving NDD and are important as dispersers facilitating escape from NDD mortality. However, interruption to ecological processes caused by human activities, such as hunting, can perturb NDD interactions and cause cascading effects throughout an ecosystem. In my thesis I investigate the role of dispersal and mortality in NDD dynamics of tropical tree communities, as well as investigating local and global impacts of removing ecological interactions in tropical rainforests. In my thesis, I begin by addressing the presence and variation in strength of NDD among tree species and ontogenetic stages, the mechanisms driving NDD, and the role of trophic interactions in this process. The Janzen-Connell hypothesis predicts that host-specific natural enemies drive NDD by selectively reducing conspecific density, and increase diversity by suppressing competitive exclusion, thus allowing heterospecifics to persist. In chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis, I show that mortality driven by conspecific NDD is prevalent at the early life stages, and this effect is considerably stronger during the year after germination. Furthermore, this process is driven exclusively by host-specific fungal pathogens, which cause mortality selectively among conspecifics and drive diversity. As seedlings age beyond their first year, NDD interactions become less impacted by conspecifics but are impacted by closely related neighbours or by general neighbourhood density, representing changes in the mechanism driving NDD as seedlings age, and a decline in host-specificity of natural enemies. Equally, relative growth rates (RGR) are reduced under high neighbourhood density irrespective of species identity. Results suggest insect herbivores are the strongest driver of reduced RGR but not mortality under increased neighbourhood density. As a consequence of stronger inter than intra-specific NDD effects on RGR, insects had no impact on seedling diversity in the short term. This study supports assertions that regionally rare species experience stronger NDD than common species, accounting for the high variability in species relative abundance in the tropics. In the second part of my thesis, I address the role of large vertebrate dispersers in shaping tropical tree communities and the consequences of defaunation for tree assemblage and carbon storage. Dispersal allows seeds to escape NDD and persist to reproductive maturity and is therefore vital for the maintenance of diversity. Vertebrates disperse the seeds of more than 70% of neo-tropical tree species. However, many large vertebrates are becoming scarce due to widespread hunting. The decline of large vertebrates and their role as dispersers is predicted to alter tree community composition. Additionally, large vertebrates are responsible for the dispersal of large-seeded species, which are linked to species with high wood density. With wood density positively associated with carbon storage, there is a potential cascading influence of defaunation on global carbon storage. We investigate the consequences of declining large vertebrate mortality agents in chapter 3, and the consequences of declining large vertebrate dispersers in chapters 4 and 5. Although community composition is altered in a defaunated forest, species dispersed by extirpated fauna do not appear to drive this. In fact we find that many species thought to be heavily reliant on extirpated fauna manage to persist. Although it is thought that the simultaneous loss of seed predation from large terrestrial vertebrates may create compensatory effects, we found little support for this, with an absence of large terrestrial vertebrates driving only temporary changes to species diversity. Neither a loss of large frugivores or large-seeded species lead to declines in species with high wood density, but we detect a worrying decline in large stemmed species, which has negative implications for carbon storage. Overall, my thesis highlights the importance of NDD and trophic interactions, particularly fungal pathogens, at the early life stages in shaping tropical tree communities and in maintaining diversity. I provide evidence that the removal of trophic interactions among larger natural enemies and dispersers does not impact community assemblage in the directional manner found in previous studies. I provide evidence for the variability in response to trophic interactions among species and ontogenetic stages. I show disproportionate relative importance among natural enemies and dispersers in the maintenance of tropical tree assemblage, with implications for conservation and for assessing the consequences for tree diversity under the influence of degradation.

A series of experiments were conducted to investigate how dietary and ruminal factors regulate urea-N recycling in ruminants. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, urea-N kinetics were measured using 4-d intra-jugular infusions of [15N15N]-urea. In Experiment 1, the objective was to determine how interactions between dietary ruminally-degradable protein (RDP) level and ruminally-fermentable carbohydrate (RFC) may alter urea-N transfer to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the utilization of this recycled urea-N in rapidly-growing lambs fed high N diets. The dietary factors were: 1) dry-rolled barley (DRB) vs. pelleted barley (PB) as the principal source of RFC; and 2) dietary levels of RDP of 60 vs. 70% (% of CP). Nitrogen intake, fecal and urinary N excretion increased as dietary RDP level increased; however, method of barley processing had no effect on N use. Dietary treatment had no effect on urea-N kinetics; however, endogenous production of urea-N (UER) exceeded N intake. For all diets, 0.669 to 0.742 of UER was recycled to the GIT; however, 0.636 to 0.756 of the GER was returned to the ornithine cycle. In Experiment 2, the objective was to delineate the effects of partial defaunation of the rumen on urea-N kinetics in lambs fed low or high N diets. Treatments were: 1) partial defaunation (PDFAUN) vs. faunation (FAUN); and 2) low (10%, LOW) vs. high (15%, HIGH) dietary CP. Linoleic acid-rich sunflower oil was fed as a partially-defaunating agent. Partial defaunation decreased ruminal NH3-N concentrations. The UER and urinary urea-N excretion (UUE) were lower, and the GER tended to be lower in PDFAUN as compared to FAUN lambs; however, as a proportion of UER, GER was higher and the proportion of recycled urea-N that was utilized for anabolism (i.e., UUA) tended to be higher in PDFAUN lambs. The UER, GER and UUE were higher in lambs fed diet HIGH; however, as a proportion of UER, GER and its anabolic use were higher in lambs fed diet LOW. In Experiment 3, the objective was to delineate how, at similar N intakes, interactions between ruminal partial defaunation and altering dietary RFC may alter urea-N kinetics and N metabolism in lambs. Treatments were: 1) PDFAUN vs. FAUN; and 2) DRB vs. PB. Urinary N excretion was lower and retained N was higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. The UER was similar across treatments; however, the GER, expressed as absolute amounts or as a proportion of UER, UUA, and microbial N supply were higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. As a proportion of UER, GER was higher, whereas UUE was lower in lambs fed PB compared to those fed DRB. In Experiment 4, the objective was to determine the effects of feeding oscillating dietary CP compared to static dietary CP concentration on N retention and in vitro urea flux across ruminal epithelia. Dietary treatments consisted of a medium CP diet (MEDIUM; 12.8% CP) or diets with oscillating CP content (OSC) fed in two different sequences i.e., 2 d of low CP (9.7% CP) followed by 2 d of high CP (16.1% CP; OSC-HIGH) or vice-versa (OSC-LOW). Ruminal epithelial tissues were collected and mounted in Ussing chambers under short-circuit conditions and the serosal-to-mucosal urea flux (Jsm-urea) was measured using 14C-urea. Although N intake was similar, retained N and microbial N supply were greater in lambs fed the OSC diets compared to those fed the MEDIUM diet. The total Jsm-urea was higher in lambs fed the OSC-LOW compared to those fed the OSC-HIGH diet. Across diets, the addition of phloretin (a known specific inhibitor of facilitative urea transporter-B; UT-B) reduced Jsm-urea; however, phloretin-insensitive Jsm-urea was the predominant route for transepithelial urea transfer. In summary, data presented in this thesis provide new insights that the improved N retention typically observed in defaunated ruminants and in ruminants fed oscillating dietary CP concentrations is partly mediated via increased urea-N recycling to the GIT and utilization of recycled urea-N for anabolic purposes.

A series of experiments were conducted to investigate how dietary and ruminal factors regulate urea-N recycling in ruminants. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, urea-N kinetics were measured using 4-d intra-jugular infusions of [15N15N]-urea. In Experiment 1, the objective was to determine how interactions between dietary ruminally-degradable protein (RDP) level and ruminally-fermentable carbohydrate (RFC) may alter urea-N transfer to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the utilization of this recycled urea-N in rapidly-growing lambs fed high N diets. The dietary factors were: 1) dry-rolled barley (DRB) vs. pelleted barley (PB) as the principal source of RFC; and 2) dietary levels of RDP of 60 vs. 70% (% of CP). Nitrogen intake, fecal and urinary N excretion increased as dietary RDP level increased; however, method of barley processing had no effect on N use. Dietary treatment had no effect on urea-N kinetics; however, endogenous production of urea-N (UER) exceeded N intake. For all diets, 0.669 to 0.742 of UER was recycled to the GIT; however, 0.636 to 0.756 of the GER was returned to the ornithine cycle. In Experiment 2, the objective was to delineate the effects of partial defaunation of the rumen on urea-N kinetics in lambs fed low or high N diets. Treatments were: 1) partial defaunation (PDFAUN) vs. faunation (FAUN); and 2) low (10%, LOW) vs. high (15%, HIGH) dietary CP. Linoleic acid-rich sunflower oil was fed as a partially-defaunating agent. Partial defaunation decreased ruminal NH3-N concentrations. The UER and urinary urea-N excretion (UUE) were lower, and the GER tended to be lower in PDFAUN as compared to FAUN lambs; however, as a proportion of UER, GER was higher and the proportion of recycled urea-N that was utilized for anabolism (i.e., UUA) tended to be higher in PDFAUN lambs. The UER, GER and UUE were higher in lambs fed diet HIGH; however, as a proportion of UER, GER and its anabolic use were higher in lambs fed diet LOW. In Experiment 3, the objective was to delineate how, at similar N intakes, interactions between ruminal partial defaunation and altering dietary RFC may alter urea-N kinetics and N metabolism in lambs. Treatments were: 1) PDFAUN vs. FAUN; and 2) DRB vs. PB. Urinary N excretion was lower and retained N was higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. The UER was similar across treatments; however, the GER, expressed as absolute amounts or as a proportion of UER, UUA, and microbial N supply were higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. As a proportion of UER, GER was higher, whereas UUE was lower in lambs fed PB compared to those fed DRB. In Experiment 4, the objective was to determine the effects of feeding oscillating dietary CP compared to static dietary CP concentration on N retention and in vitro urea flux across ruminal epithelia. Dietary treatments consisted of a medium CP diet (MEDIUM; 12.8% CP) or diets with oscillating CP content (OSC) fed in two different sequences i.e., 2 d of low CP (9.7% CP) followed by 2 d of high CP (16.1% CP; OSC-HIGH) or vice-versa (OSC-LOW). Ruminal epithelial tissues were collected and mounted in Ussing chambers under short-circuit conditions and the serosal-to-mucosal urea flux (Jsm-urea) was measured using 14C-urea. Although N intake was similar, retained N and microbial N supply were greater in lambs fed the OSC diets compared to those fed the MEDIUM diet. The total Jsm-urea was higher in lambs fed the OSC-LOW compared to those fed the OSC-HIGH diet. Across diets, the addition of phloretin (a known specific inhibitor of facilitative urea transporter-B; UT-B) reduced Jsm-urea; however, phloretin-insensitive Jsm-urea was the predominant route for transepithelial urea transfer. In summary, data presented in this thesis provide new insights that the improved N retention typically observed in defaunated ruminants and in ruminants fed oscillating dietary CP concentrations is partly mediated via increased urea-N recycling to the GIT and utilization of recycled urea-N for anabolic purposes.

Die Hauptursachen für die derzeitige weltweite Krise der biologischen Vielfalt sind Lebensraumzerstörung und Übernutzung. Wir wissen jedoch nicht, wie sich diese beiden Faktoren einzeln und zusammen auf die verschiedenen Aspekte biologischer Vielfalt auswirken und wie sie sich im Laufe der Zeit verändern. Da beide Bedrohungen weit verbreitet sind, verhindern dies die Entwicklung wirksamer Schutzstrategien. Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit war räumliche und zeitliche Veränderungsmuster der Auswirkungen von Lebensraumzerstörung und Übernutzung auf die biologische Vielfalt zu verstehen. Ich habe diese Bedrohungsgeographien mit hoher räumlicher Auflösung und über drei Jahrzehnte hinweg für verschiedene Aspekte biologischer Vielfalt untersucht: Arten, Lebensgemeinschaften und taxonomische, phylogenetische und funktionale Facetten biologischer Vielfalt. Ich konzentrierte mich auf den 1,1 Millionen km² großen Gran Chaco, den größten tropischen Trockenwald der Welt und einen globalen Entwaldungs-Hotspot. Meine Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich im Laufe von 30 Jahren die räumlichen Auswirkungen der einzelnen Bedrohungen auf größere Gebiete ausdehnten als nur auf die abgeholzte Fläche. Dies führte zu einem Verlust an hochwertigen und sicheren Gebieten für den Jaguar, die gesamte Großsäugergemeinschaft und alle Facetten der Säugetiervielfalt. Beide Bedrohungen trugen wesentlich zum Rückgang biologischer Vielfalt bei, ihre relative Bedeutung variierte jedoch je nach Art und Facette der biologischen Vielfalt. Zudem haben die Gebiete, in denen beide Bedrohungen zusammenwirken, im Laufe der Zeit zugenommen, was den Verlust der biologischen Vielfalt wahrscheinlich noch verschlimmert hat. Diese Arbeit unterstreicht, wie wichtig es ist, die Auswirkungen mehrerer Bedrohungen im Laufe der Zeit gemeinsam zu bewerten, um den menschlichen Einfluss auf die biologische Vielfalt besser verstehen zu können und wirksame Schutzstrategien zu finden. / The main drivers of the current global biodiversity crisis are habitat destruction and overexploitation. Yet, we lack understanding of their individual and combined spatial impact on different aspects of biodiversity, and how they change over time. Because both threats are common, these knowledge gaps preclude building more effective conservation strategies. The overarching goal of this thesis was to understand how the impacts of habitat destruction and overexploitation on biodiversity change in space and over time. I assessed these geographies of threat at high spatial resolutions and over three decades for different biodiversity aspects: species, communities, and the taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional facets of biodiversity. I focused on the 1.1 million km² Gran Chaco, the largest tropical dry forest globally, and a global deforestation hotspot. Results reveal that over 30 years, the spatial impacts of each threat expanded over larger areas than the area deforested. This resulted in widespread losses of high-quality and safe areas for the jaguar, the entire larger mammal community and for all facets of the mammalian diversity. Such declines suggest a generalized biotic impoverishment that includes the loss of species, evolutionary history, and ecological functions across much of the Chaco. Both threats contributed substantially to biodiversity declines, and their relative importance varied among species and biodiversity facets. Moreover, the areas where both threats synergize increased over time, likely exacerbating biodiversity losses. For each biodiversity aspect, I identified priority areas of safe and high-quality habitats, and hotspots of high threat impacts, which could guide more effective complementary proactive and reactive conservation strategies. This thesis highlights the importance of jointly assessing the impact of multiple threats over time to better understand the impact of humans on biodiversity and to identify effective ways to mitigate them. / Los principales factores de la actual crisis de la biodiversidad global son la destrucción del hábitat y la sobreexplotación. Sin embargo, desconocemos su impacto espacial, tanto individual como combinado, sobre los diferentes aspectos de la biodiversidad, y cómo cambian en el tiempo. Como ambas amenazas son comunes, estos vacíos de conocimiento impiden elaborar estrategias de conservación más eficaces. El objetivo general de esta tesis fue comprender cómo los impactos de la destrucción del hábitat y la sobreexplotación en la biodiversidad cambian en el espacio y en el tiempo. Evalué estas geografías de las amenazas a altas resoluciones espaciales y a lo largo de tres décadas para diferentes aspectos de la biodiversidad: especies, comunidades y las facetas taxonómica, filogenética y funcional de la biodiversidad. Me centré en el Gran Chaco, de 1,1 millones de km², el mayor bosque seco tropical del mundo y un foco global de deforestación. Los resultados revelan que, a lo largo de 30 años, los impactos espaciales de cada una de las amenazas se extendieron por areas mayores que la superficie deforestada. Esto dio lugar a pérdidas extendidas de áreas seguras y de alta calidad para el jaguar, la comunidad de mamíferos grandes y para todas las facetas de la diversidad de mamíferos. Estos declives sugieren un empobrecimiento biótico generalizado que incluye la pérdida de especies, historia evolutiva y funciones ecológicas en gran parte del Chaco. Ambas amenazas contribuyeron sustancialmente al declive de la biodiversidad, y su importancia relativa varió entre especies y facetas de la biodiversidad. Además, las áreas en las que ambas amenazas sinergizan aumentaron en el tiempo, probablemente exacerbando las pérdidas de biodiversidad. Para cada aspecto de la biodiversidad, identifiqué áreas prioritarias de hábitats seguros y de alta calidad, y focos de alto impacto de las amenazas, que podrían orientar estrategias de conservación complementarias más eficaces, tanto proactivas como reactivas. Esta tesis destaca la importancia de evaluar conjuntamente el impacto de múltiples amenazas a lo largo del tiempo para comprender mejor el impacto de los humanos en la biodiversidad e identificar vías eficaces para mitigarlas.