Infektionen mit dem intestinalen Parasiten Giardia duodenalis, verursachen weltweit eine der häufigsten humanen Parasitosen. Bislang konnten keine eindeutigen Virulenz- oder Pathogenitätsmarker des Erregers beschrieben werden. Es wird allerdings vermutet, dass potentielle G. duodenalis Virulenzfaktoren Enzyme sind, die während des Kontaktes des Erregers mit den Dünndarmepithelzellen sezerniert werden. Eines dieser Enzyme ist die Arginin Deiminase (ADI), die Arginin zu Citrullin umwandelt. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es Merkmale zu identifizieren, die für die ADI als Virulenzfaktor sprechen. Dazu wurde das Enzym zunächst hinsichtlich seiner Bedeutung für die Wirt-Pathogen-Interaktion untersucht. Die mit rekombinanter, katalytisch aktiver ADI (Assemblage A) behandelten LPS-stimulierten humanen moDC zeigten eine Veränderung in ihrem Phänotyp als auch in ihrer Cytokinsekretion. Diese ließ sich auf die durch das Enzym hervorgerufene Arginindepletion und/oder auf die Bildung der Metabolite, Citrullin und NH4+, zurückführen. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass Parasitenisolate verschiedener G. duodenalis Assemblage A-Subtypen, vermutlich durch die katalytische Aktivität der ADI, die Stickstoffmonoxid-Bildung einer intestinalen Epithelzelllinie inhibiert. Neben dem Einfluss auf die Wirtsimmunantwort wurde auch die Variabilität in der kodierenden Sequenz des Enzyms in verschiedenen Parasitenisolaten analysiert. Anschließend erfolgte die funktionelle Charakterisierung des nativen (verschiedene Assemblage A-Subtypen) als auch des rekombinant aufgereinigten Enzyms (Assemblage A, B und E). Dabei zeigten sich Unterschiede in der Substrataffinität der ADI für Arginin, sowohl zwischen unterschiedlichen Assemblage A-Subtypen als auch unterschiedlichen Assemblage-Klassen. Zusammenfassend wurde gezeigt, dass die G. duodenalis ADI immunmodulatorische Effekte hat und das vermutlich eine Korrelation zwischen der Variation in der Primärstruktur und der Funktion des Enzyms besteht. / Giardia duodenalis (G. duodenalis) is an intestinal protozoan parasite that causes giardiasis, one of the most prevalent parasitic diseases worldwide. So far, little is known concerning host-parasite interaction, in particular what determines the parasite’s pathogenicity. Several potential virulence factors, among them the arginine deiminase (ADI) that hydrolyzes arginine into citrulline and NH4+, are discussed. The ADI was identified to be released upon contact with intestinal epithelium by Giardia trophozoites and was recognized as an immunoreactive protein during acute human giardiasis. Aim of the study was to identify hints for G. duodenalis ADI to be a virulence factor. First, to analyze the enzyme’s impact on host-parasite interplay, its influence on human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDC) was investigated. Treatment of LPS-stimulated cells with recombinant ADI of assemblage A changed DC phenotype (CD83, CD86) and cytokine secretion (TNF-α, IL-10, IL-12p40). These immunomodulatory changes in DC response were due to arginine depletion and the formation of reaction products, in particular, ammonium ions. Furthermore, trophozoites of different assemblage subtypes were shown, probably due to consumption of arginine by ADI, to reduce nitric oxide formation by intestinal epithelial cells in vitro. Second, variation in the ADI coding sequence of different G. duodenalis isolates being collected in a Giardia biobank was analyzed by sequencing. Subsequently, functional genetics were performed with native ADI of different assemblage A subtypes expressed by these strains as well as with purified, recombinant ADI of assemblage A, B and E. It was recognized that enzymes of the same subtype as well as of different assemblages types had different substrate affinities for arginine. To sum up, this report identified G. duodenalis ADI to be immunomodulatory and gives first indications of a correlation between enzyme function and variation of the protein primary structure.

Lactococcus is an economically important group in lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that are often used in the dairy industry as starters for cheese production. Good starter strains should possess the ability to grow, ferment milk sugar, and produce desirable flavor compounds during cheese making. Therefore, it is essential to understand the physiology of these starters during cheese processing in order to obtain high-quality cheese products. Cheese manufacturing compromises several stress factors that affect the growth of starter lactococci. Among these stressed environmental parameters, sugar starvation is the most important one to overcome to obtain energy for cellular processes. It is known that degradation of arginine produces energy. In this study, we investigated arginine utilization by Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis strain ML3 via the arginine deiminase (ADI) pathway to see its influence on cellular physiology after exhaustion of a primary energy source. During the cell growth in a carbohydrate-limited environment, we observed that metabolic pathways switched between lactose utilization arginine degradation. The statistical model described in this study suggested lactose and arginine were co-metabolized during cell growth. These results initially showed arginine was a good candidate of secondary energy source after exhaustion of primary energy source (lactose). To confirm these observations, cell counts, cellular ATP levels, ADI enzyme activities, and total protein expression were compared in arginine-positive L. lactis ssp. lactis ML3 and arginine-negative L. lactis ssp. cremoris Sl grown in medium containing 0.2% lactose and 2% arginine. Results showed ATP levels remained high in strain ML3, in which a transition stage of protein expression pattern was also observed. This physiological evidence highlights the important roles of arginine degradation in starved ML3, perhaps by producing extra ATP and modulating external pH. The genes involved in the ADI pathway of strain ML3 were cloned, sequenced, and characterized. Genes involved in this pathway formed a unique multi-operon cluster structure that we termed MOC. It was organized as arcA, arcBD1, arcC1C2, and arcTD2. The influence of different environmental parameters including pH, various amino acids, and phosphate (organic and inorganic) on the expression of the ADI MOC was tested. No single factor regulated the entire MOC simultaneously. It is concluded that the unique structure of the MOC appears to allow the ADI pathway to occur in discrete sections in response to fluctuated external conditions, such as sugar starvation and low environmental pH.

Les peptidyl-arginine désiminases (PADs) catalysent une modification post-traductionnelle, appelée désimination, qui correspond à la transformation des résidus arginine en résidus citrulline. À ce jour, leur rôle est encore mal compris, bien qu'elles aient été impliquées dans divers processus physiologiques et pathologiques. Dans l'épiderme et le follicule pileux, trois d'entre elles sont exprimées, les PAD1, 2 et 3. La désimination de la filaggrine (FLG), protéine essentielle de la différenciation épidermique, semble conduire à sa dissociation des filaments de kératines et permettre sa protéolyse totale. Les acides aminés libres ainsi générés sont nécessaires à la fonction de barrière que remplit la couche cornée, couche cellulaire la plus externe de l'épiderme. Dans le follicule pileux, la désimination de la trichohyaline (TCHH), protéine apparentée à la FLG, augmente sa solubilité et permet sa liaison covalente aux kératines par la transglutaminase 3 (TGase 3), ce qui participe à la formation de la tige pilaire. La description du rôle des PADs au cours de la différenciation des kératinocytes est cependant encore incomplète, et leurs implications dans les maladies de peau peu explorée. L'objectif de mon travail de thèse a été de mieux comprendre le rôle des PADs dans le métabolisme de la FLG et, plus généralement, dans l'homéostasie de l'épiderme et du follicule pileux. Tout d'abord, j'ai montré que la désimination de la FLG humaine par la PAD1 et/ou 3 est une étape majeure qui permet de réguler sa dégradation complète en fonction du taux d'humidité extérieure. Pour cela, j'ai utilisé comme modèle expérimental des épidermes reconstruits humains (ERHs). La diminution de l'humidité relative lors de leur production, de 95% à 30-50%, augmente la protéolyse de la FLG et la genèse des acides aminés correspondants. En parallèle, l'expression de la PAD1 et le taux de désimination de la FLG sont fortement accrus alors que ni l'expression ni l'activité des protéases impliquées dans cette protéolyse ne varient. De plus, le traitement d'ERHs pendant 24 heures avec un inhibiteur des PADs, le Cl-amidine, bloque en partie l'effet de la sécheresse sur le métabolisme de la FLG. J'ai ensuite recherché si la désimination joue un rôle plus global au cours de la différenciation des kératinocytes. J'ai traité des ERHs avec différentes concentrations de Cl-amidine pendant 48 heures et analysé l'effet du traitement sur leur morphologie. L'inhibition de la désimination est dose-dépendante et non toxique. À la plus forte concentration, le Cl-amidine entraîne un amincissement de la couche cornée, une augmentation importante du nombre de cellules transitionnelles, et l'accumulation de mitochondries et de vésicules dans le cytoplasme des kératinocytes granuleux. Ceci permet de proposer que la cornification, dernière étape de la différenciation kératinocytaire, est retardée. De plus, la protéine LC3B-II, marqueur des autophagosomes, étant plus fortement détectée dans les ERHs traités, les PAD1 et/ou 3 pourraient être impliquées dans le processus d'autophagie associé à la cornification.Enfin, j'ai participé à un nouveau projet collaboratif qui a permis de découvrir l'origine d'une maladie génétique rare, le syndrome des cheveux incoiffables. Des mutations des gènes de la TCHH, de la PAD3 ou de la TGase 3 ont été identifiées dans 11 familles et sont responsables de ce syndrome. La mutation non-sens du gène de la TCHH aboutit à la synthèse, si elle a lieu, d'une forme très courte, probablement incapable d'interagir avec les kératines. Les mutations des gènes de la PAD3 et de la TGase 3 induisent des changements structuraux et une quasi-absence de l'activité des enzymes correspondantes. De plus, les souris dont le gène de la Pad3 a été inactivé présentent des anomalies de la forme des poils. Ces résultats ont permis de comprendre la physiopathologie de cette maladie des cheveux et ont prouvé que la PAD3 est essentielle à leur morphogenèse. / Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) catalyze a post-translational modification, named deimination, corresponding to the transformation of arginine residues into citrulline. So far, their role is still poorly understood even if they have been associated with numerous physiological and pathological processes. In the epidermis and the hair follicle, three PADs are expressed, namely PAD1, 2 and 3. Deimination of filaggrin (FLG), a major protein of epidermal differentiation, would lead to its detachment from keratin filaments and allow its full proteolysis. The resulting free amino acids contribute to the barrier function of the cornified layer, the outmost cellular layer of the epidermis. In the hair follicle, deimination of trichohyalin (TCHH), a FLG-related protein, increases its solubility and improves its crosslinking by transglutaminase 3 (TGase 3) to keratins, contributing to the hair shaft formation. However, the function of PADs during keratinocyte differentiation is incompletely described and their involvements in skin diseases have been poorly investigated. The objective of my work was to better understand the role of PADs in the metabolism of FLG, and more generally in the epidermis and hair follicle homeostasis. First of all, I demonstrated that a major step in the metabolism of human FLG is its deimination by PAD1 and/or PAD3. This regulates its complete degradation according to the external humidity level. For this purpose, I used reconstructed human epidermis (RHEs) as an experimental model. Lowering relative humidity from 95 to 30-50% during RHE generation enhanced FLG proteolysis as well as the resulting amino acid amount. In parallel, PAD1 expression and FLG deimination were highly increased while the expression or activity of proteases known to target FLG did not vary. Moreover, treatment of RHEs during 24 hours with Cl-amidine, a PAD inhibitor, partially blocked the effect of dryness on FLG metabolism. Then, I investigated whether deimination could play a more general role during keratinocyte differentiation. I treated RHEs with various concentrations of Cl-amidine during 48 hours and I analyzed the effect of treatments on the epidermis morphology. The inhibition of deimination was dose-dependent and not cytotoxic. At the strongest concentration, Cl-amidine was shown to cause thinning of the cornified layer, to highly increase the number of transitional cells and to induce accumulation of mitochondria and vesicles in the cytoplasm of granular keratinocytes. This suggested that cornification, the ultimate stage of keratinocyte differentiation, is slowed down by Cl-amidine treatment. Besides, as the autophagosome marker LC3B-II was up-regulated in Cl-amidine treated RHEs, PAD1 and/or PAD3 could be involved in the cornification-associated process of autophagy. Finally, I participated in a new collaborative work that led to discover the cause of uncombable hair syndrome, a rare genetic disorder. Mutations of the genes encoding TCHH, PAD3 and TGase 3 were identified in 11 families and were shown to be responsible for the disease. The nonsense mutation in TCHH gene results in the synthesis, if any, of a very short protein, probably not able to interact with keratins. Mutations in PAD3 and TGase3 genes were shown to induce structural changes and almost total absence of activity of the corresponding enzymes. Moreover, examination of Pad3 deficient mice revealed alterations in the hair morphology. These results allowed a better understanding of this hair disease physiopathology and proved that PAD3 is essential for the hair shaft morphogenesis.

Neutrophils are major cell type of innate immunity, that can eliminate pathogens by different mechanisms. One of these mechanisms is called NETosis, which leads to release of decondensed chromatin and citrullinated histone proteins. Citrullination is post-translational modification catalysed by peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) and causing transformation of possitively charged arginin to neutral citrullin and can change expression of cytokine genes. Concetrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-8, TNF, IL-1) were measured after activation of PAD4 and induction of citrullination. Calcium ionophore was used to induce citrullinaton, Cl-amidine and TDFA were used as inhibitors. Production of cytokines was assessed by ELISA on protein level and by qPCR on mRNA level. It was found that induction of citrullination led to increased concentrations of IL-8 and IL-1. Elevated gene expression of IL-8 was confirmed on mRNA level. Both inhibitors were able to decrease level of histone H3 citrullination and IL-8 and IL-1 concentrations. Expression of TNF was not detected on protein and mRNA level.

No description available.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disabling disease that afflicts an estimated two million people worldwide. The disease is characterized by degradation of the myelin sheath that insulates neurons of the central nervous system manifesting as a heterogeneous collection of symptoms. Two enzymes, protein arginine deaminases type 2 and 4 (PAD2 and PAD4) have been implicated to play an etiologic role in demyelination and neurodegeneration by catalyzing a post-translational modification of arginine peptide residues to citrulline. The pathogenesis of MS is poorly understood, though vitamin D deficiency is a well-associated risk factor for developing the disorder. Using the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS we demonstrate vitamin D treatment to attenuate over-expression of PAD 2 and 4 in the brain and spine during EAE. In addition, we identify two molecules produced by peripheral immune cells, IFNɣ and IL-6, as candidate signaling molecules that induce PAD expression in the brain. We demonstrate vitamin D treatment to inhibit IFNɣ mediated up regulation of PAD2 and PAD4 both directly within the brain and by modulating PAD-inducing cytokine production by infiltrating immune cells. These results provide neuroprotective rational for the supplementation of vitamin D in MS patients. More importantly, these results imply an epigenetic link between vitamin D deficiency and the pathogenesis of MS that merits further investigation.