As an emerging urban design tool, form-base codes have been increasingly used by urban planners and designers since the 1980s. Focusing on the actual built environment, form-based codes can provide more predictable results of future development and help planners to more easily communicate with people through detailed diagrams to develop consensual visions. Despite all of these advantages, however, there is no study identifying the advantages of form-based codes over conventional codes in both quantitative and qualitative ways. This thesis proposes what aspects of form-based codes have a positive impact on community revitalization compared with conventional zoning and the differences between the regulation systems by establishing evaluation criteria - sustainability, connectivity, diversity, and design optimization and compactness. For clearer analysis, physical standards in both regulation systems will be considered, and those standards will be directly applied to the actual community development project, the Fort McPherson Redevelopment Plan.

<p>The masonry construction industry represents a historically significant and substantial portion of both existing and new residential, commercial and institutional low- to medium-rise structures across Canada. Although commonly chosen for its aesthetic qualities by architects, structural masonry walls constructed with concrete block units are also an effective lateral force (wind or seismic) resisting system. The purpose of this dissertation is to address what are perceived to be overly conservative and outdated practices within masonry construction and design by adopting analysis and design practices which have had success with similar reinforced concrete wall systems. The results from a test program reporting on the behavior of nine fully-grouted reinforced masonry (RM) structural walls containing confined boundary elements are analyzed and presented according to force-, displacement- and performance-based seismic design considerations. The boundary element containing four vertical bars with lateral confinement stirrups selected represents a readily codified and practically achievable means of achieving seismic performance enhancement. The design and detailing of the specimens represented a range of parameters that would be anticipated to vary within low- to medium-rise RM buildings. In addition, an analytical study is carried out to derive, from first principles of stress equilibrium and strain compatibility, the necessary constitutive material and mechanics-based equations needed to solve for the state of shear stress and strain in an idealized cracked masonry macro-element. The algorithm proposed is validated by comparing the proposed model to existing test data and is further developed towards predicting the design shear strength of RM structural walls. The results from these experimental and analytical research programs are subsequently used to provide a set of proposed code clauses at the end of the thesis. Prescriptive design requirements are proposed for a new category of <em>Special Ductile Masonry Shear Wall</em> containing boundary elements including integration of a new shear strength expression. These clauses have been written with the intention of adoption within the CSA S304.1 and the MSJC North American masonry designs standards.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This study was initiated to quantify the effect of different degrees of irregularity on structures designed for earthquake using simplified analysis. The types of irregularity considered were: (a) Vertical Irregularity • Mass • Stiffness -Strength (b) Horizontal (Plan) Irregularity • Diaphragm Flexibility Simple models were used to allow many analyses to be conducted in a relatively short time. For vertical irregularity studies, simple shear-type structures were designed according to the New Zealand design Standard, NZS1170.5, firstly as regular structures, and then they were redesigned as irregular structures to the same target drift. Both regular and irregular structures were then subjected to a suite of records, and vertical irregularity effects evaluated from the difference in response. For the flexible diaphragm effect study, simple models of structures were developed with: (a) a rigid diaphragm assumption; and (b) a flexible diaphragm assumption. Flexible diaphragm effects were evaluated by conducting time-history analyses and comparing the responses of structures with rigid and flexible diaphragms. A mechanics based approach was developed to quantify flexible diaphragm effects, which was shown to produce consistent results with those from time-history analyses. Relationships between the degree of irregularity and the change in behaviour were developed. This information facilitates designers and plan checkers to rapidly evaluate the likely effect of irregularity on structures. It provides guidance as to: (a) when the effect of structural irregularity can be ignored, and (b) the change in demands for different degrees of structural irregularity. The relations developed also provide a rigorous technical basis for future regularity provisions in the NZS1170.5 and other world-wide seismic design codes.

No description available.

Estruturas treliçadas de linhas de transmissão submetidas à ação do vento têm sido utilizadas de forma rotineira em aplicações da engenharia estrutural há mais de um século. Entretanto, o conhecimento dos efeitos do vento sobre este tipo de estrutura é, ainda hoje, imperfeito e as prescrições das normas a respeito destes efeitos são, em muitos casos, mutuamente inconsistentes e em desacordo com os dados experimentais. Partindo deste contexto, no caso particular de estruturas para linhas de transmissão, podemos acrescentar que as normas existentes não são, em princípio, aplicáveis à maior parte das geometrias utilizadas nos projetos das torres. Além disso, maiores níveis de segurança e confiabilidade são atingidos quando a consideração criteriosa dos efeitos do vento é feita a partir da etapa de concepção sendo, geralmente, este o processo de menor custo e de maior eficiência. Sabe-se também que o modelo físico adotado para consideração dos carregamentos difere do real, seja pela forma de atuação ou pela complexidade para estimativa da interação entre fluido-estrutura. Nesse sentido, através do presente trabalho procurou-se: desenvolver e aperfeiçoar instrumentos e técnicas de medição de coeficientes de arrasto; verificar a aplicabilidade dos critérios de estimativa do carregamento devido ao vento sobre trechos de estruturas treliçadas; propor coeficientes de arrasto compatíveis com geometrias tradicionalmente utilizadas em torres de linhas de transmissão determinados a partir da aplicação de dois critérios de área de referência, a saber, área calculada e área projetada; além de comparar os resultados experimentais com outras referências como normas técnicas de projeto. Este trabalho de pesquisa contempla o estudo de duas torres de suspensão autoportantes em túnel de vento. Para a realização dos ensaios, através de modelos reduzidos, cada torre foi dividida em módulos. Os módulos foram ensaiados para diferentes ângulos de incidência do vento e também para diferentes níveis de velocidade do vento. As forças de arrasto sobre os modelos foram determinadas através de uma balança de forças unidirecional instalada na base da câmara de ensaios. / Transmission lines lattice structures submitted to wind action have been widely used in structural engineering applications for more than a century. However, the knowledge of the wind effect on this type of structure is yet imperfect, being the codes recommendations, in several cases, inconsistent and in disagreement with the experimental data. From this point of view, in the particular case of transmission lines structures, we can add that the existing codes are not, in principle, applicable to a large amount of geometries used in the towers design. Furthermore, largest safety and reliability levels are reached when careful consideration of the wind effects is made from the conception stage, being this process, in general, the less costly and the most efficient. It is also known that the physical model adopted for the consideration of the loads differs from the real, either for the way in which the load is really applied or the complexity for an accurate estimate of the fluid-structure interaction. In this sense, the present work had the aim of: developing and improving instrumentation and measurement techniques for drag coefficients; verifying the applicability of the criteria for estimating wind loads on modules of lattice structures; proposing drag coefficients applicable to geometries traditionally adopted in transmission lines towers, obtained from the application of the two reference areas criteria, calculated area and projected area; as well as comparing experimental results with other references such as design codes. The research contemplates wind tunnel studies of two self-supported suspension towers. For the accomplishment of the tests, through scaled models, each tower was divided in modules. The modules had been tested for different angles of incidence of the wind and also for different wind speeds. The drag forces on the models were measured through a unidirectional force balance installed in the base of the models.

Estruturas treliçadas de linhas de transmissão submetidas à ação do vento têm sido utilizadas de forma rotineira em aplicações da engenharia estrutural há mais de um século. Entretanto, o conhecimento dos efeitos do vento sobre este tipo de estrutura é, ainda hoje, imperfeito e as prescrições das normas a respeito destes efeitos são, em muitos casos, mutuamente inconsistentes e em desacordo com os dados experimentais. Partindo deste contexto, no caso particular de estruturas para linhas de transmissão, podemos acrescentar que as normas existentes não são, em princípio, aplicáveis à maior parte das geometrias utilizadas nos projetos das torres. Além disso, maiores níveis de segurança e confiabilidade são atingidos quando a consideração criteriosa dos efeitos do vento é feita a partir da etapa de concepção sendo, geralmente, este o processo de menor custo e de maior eficiência. Sabe-se também que o modelo físico adotado para consideração dos carregamentos difere do real, seja pela forma de atuação ou pela complexidade para estimativa da interação entre fluido-estrutura. Nesse sentido, através do presente trabalho procurou-se: desenvolver e aperfeiçoar instrumentos e técnicas de medição de coeficientes de arrasto; verificar a aplicabilidade dos critérios de estimativa do carregamento devido ao vento sobre trechos de estruturas treliçadas; propor coeficientes de arrasto compatíveis com geometrias tradicionalmente utilizadas em torres de linhas de transmissão determinados a partir da aplicação de dois critérios de área de referência, a saber, área calculada e área projetada; além de comparar os resultados experimentais com outras referências como normas técnicas de projeto. Este trabalho de pesquisa contempla o estudo de duas torres de suspensão autoportantes em túnel de vento. Para a realização dos ensaios, através de modelos reduzidos, cada torre foi dividida em módulos. Os módulos foram ensaiados para diferentes ângulos de incidência do vento e também para diferentes níveis de velocidade do vento. As forças de arrasto sobre os modelos foram determinadas através de uma balança de forças unidirecional instalada na base da câmara de ensaios. / Transmission lines lattice structures submitted to wind action have been widely used in structural engineering applications for more than a century. However, the knowledge of the wind effect on this type of structure is yet imperfect, being the codes recommendations, in several cases, inconsistent and in disagreement with the experimental data. From this point of view, in the particular case of transmission lines structures, we can add that the existing codes are not, in principle, applicable to a large amount of geometries used in the towers design. Furthermore, largest safety and reliability levels are reached when careful consideration of the wind effects is made from the conception stage, being this process, in general, the less costly and the most efficient. It is also known that the physical model adopted for the consideration of the loads differs from the real, either for the way in which the load is really applied or the complexity for an accurate estimate of the fluid-structure interaction. In this sense, the present work had the aim of: developing and improving instrumentation and measurement techniques for drag coefficients; verifying the applicability of the criteria for estimating wind loads on modules of lattice structures; proposing drag coefficients applicable to geometries traditionally adopted in transmission lines towers, obtained from the application of the two reference areas criteria, calculated area and projected area; as well as comparing experimental results with other references such as design codes. The research contemplates wind tunnel studies of two self-supported suspension towers. For the accomplishment of the tests, through scaled models, each tower was divided in modules. The modules had been tested for different angles of incidence of the wind and also for different wind speeds. The drag forces on the models were measured through a unidirectional force balance installed in the base of the models.

Estruturas treliçadas de linhas de transmissão submetidas à ação do vento têm sido utilizadas de forma rotineira em aplicações da engenharia estrutural há mais de um século. Entretanto, o conhecimento dos efeitos do vento sobre este tipo de estrutura é, ainda hoje, imperfeito e as prescrições das normas a respeito destes efeitos são, em muitos casos, mutuamente inconsistentes e em desacordo com os dados experimentais. Partindo deste contexto, no caso particular de estruturas para linhas de transmissão, podemos acrescentar que as normas existentes não são, em princípio, aplicáveis à maior parte das geometrias utilizadas nos projetos das torres. Além disso, maiores níveis de segurança e confiabilidade são atingidos quando a consideração criteriosa dos efeitos do vento é feita a partir da etapa de concepção sendo, geralmente, este o processo de menor custo e de maior eficiência. Sabe-se também que o modelo físico adotado para consideração dos carregamentos difere do real, seja pela forma de atuação ou pela complexidade para estimativa da interação entre fluido-estrutura. Nesse sentido, através do presente trabalho procurou-se: desenvolver e aperfeiçoar instrumentos e técnicas de medição de coeficientes de arrasto; verificar a aplicabilidade dos critérios de estimativa do carregamento devido ao vento sobre trechos de estruturas treliçadas; propor coeficientes de arrasto compatíveis com geometrias tradicionalmente utilizadas em torres de linhas de transmissão determinados a partir da aplicação de dois critérios de área de referência, a saber, área calculada e área projetada; além de comparar os resultados experimentais com outras referências como normas técnicas de projeto. Este trabalho de pesquisa contempla o estudo de duas torres de suspensão autoportantes em túnel de vento. Para a realização dos ensaios, através de modelos reduzidos, cada torre foi dividida em módulos. Os módulos foram ensaiados para diferentes ângulos de incidência do vento e também para diferentes níveis de velocidade do vento. As forças de arrasto sobre os modelos foram determinadas através de uma balança de forças unidirecional instalada na base da câmara de ensaios. / Transmission lines lattice structures submitted to wind action have been widely used in structural engineering applications for more than a century. However, the knowledge of the wind effect on this type of structure is yet imperfect, being the codes recommendations, in several cases, inconsistent and in disagreement with the experimental data. From this point of view, in the particular case of transmission lines structures, we can add that the existing codes are not, in principle, applicable to a large amount of geometries used in the towers design. Furthermore, largest safety and reliability levels are reached when careful consideration of the wind effects is made from the conception stage, being this process, in general, the less costly and the most efficient. It is also known that the physical model adopted for the consideration of the loads differs from the real, either for the way in which the load is really applied or the complexity for an accurate estimate of the fluid-structure interaction. In this sense, the present work had the aim of: developing and improving instrumentation and measurement techniques for drag coefficients; verifying the applicability of the criteria for estimating wind loads on modules of lattice structures; proposing drag coefficients applicable to geometries traditionally adopted in transmission lines towers, obtained from the application of the two reference areas criteria, calculated area and projected area; as well as comparing experimental results with other references such as design codes. The research contemplates wind tunnel studies of two self-supported suspension towers. For the accomplishment of the tests, through scaled models, each tower was divided in modules. The modules had been tested for different angles of incidence of the wind and also for different wind speeds. The drag forces on the models were measured through a unidirectional force balance installed in the base of the models.

The experimental investigations performed on the behaviour of reinforce concrete elements subjected to blast loading have revealed that the shear mechanisms and ductility play important roles in the overall response and failure mode of such structures. The main aim of this master thesis is to study the possibility of using finite element method as a tool for predicting the dynamic response of blast loaded reinforced concrete beams and evaluation of their shear strength. In this study, the commercial software, ABAQUS/Explicit has been used by implementing appropriate constitutive material models in order to consider the material nonlinearity, stiffness degradation and strain rate effects. The results of some blast loaded tested beams have been used for verification and calibration of the model. As a secondary objective, the calibrated model used to study the influence of some important factors on the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams and investigate their effects on the failure mode. The results used as a reference and compared with the calculations according to some design codes for blast resistance design. The results of the present research show that the implemented nonlinear finite element model successfully simulates the dynamic responses including displacement/reaction force time histories and induced damage patterns of blast tested beams with reasonable accuracy. The results of performed parametric study confirm that the ductility play important role in the failure behaviour of studied beams. The numerical simulations show that dynamic response of a soft element is more ductile than the stiffer one and the shear forces are thereby limited. Thus, although a soft element fails by large deformations in flexure, a stiff element may experience a brittle shear failure mode for the same load intensity. The comparison between the results of numerical analysis and design codes calculation show that the American approach in shear design of reinforced concrete elements subjected to blast loading is relatively conservative, similar to static design approach and do not consider the effect of ductility in the shear design procedure. On the contrary, the procedure that Swedish guideline implemented somehow considers the effect of ductility on the shear strength of reinforced concrete elements subjected to impulsive loads. Further research should involve the using the developed finite element model as a tool in order to theoretically study the dynamic response of blast loaded reinforced concrete elements and their failure modes. The results of numerical simulations can be used as a reference to derive simplified computational methods for practical design purposes.

Résumé : Les dalles de tabliers de ponts et des stationnements sont exposées à des environnements agressifs en particulier au Québec et en Amérique du Nord en raison de l'utilisation de sels de déglaçage et des cycles de gel-dégel. La substitution des armatures d’acier par des armatures en matériaux composites de polymères renforcés de fibres (PRF) constitue une alternative intéressante qui connait beaucoup de succès ces dernières années. Le béton armé de PRF est durable, car l’armature n’est pas sujette à la corrosion électrochimique. Aussi l’armature de PRF possède une résistance en traction élevée et est légère. En Amérique du Nord, l’utilisation des composites de PRF a suscité une attention toute particulière de la part des ingénieurs et des gestionnaires d’ouvrages. Plusieurs organismes dont des ministères de transport spécifient l’armature de PRF comme matériau structural dans leurs devis techniques pour lutter contre la corrosion et allonger la durée de service de leurs infrastructures. Les dalles en béton armé sont souvent soumises à des efforts de cisaillement critiques. Actuellement les méthodes de calcul au cisaillement (à l’effort tranchant) de dalles unidirectionnelles en béton armé de PRF différèrent d’une norme à une autre. En effet, la majorité des équations proposées dans les normes et guides de conception ont dérivées à partir de relations empiriques. Bien que des efforts de recherche considérables aient été consacrés dans ce domaine au cours de la dernière décennie, une meilleure compréhension du comportement au cisaillement et des mécanismes de rupture de dalles unidirectionnelles en béton armé de PRF est encore nécessaire. Dans cette recherche, un programme expérimental visant à étudier le comportement de dalles renforcées avec différents types de barres en PRF a été mis en place. Vingt-deux dalles unidirectionnelles en béton renforcées avec des barres de PRF ont été construites et testées en flexion a quatre points jusqu’à la rupture. Les paramètres d’étude comprennent : le type et le taux d’armature, le diamètre de la barre, l’espacement et la configuration de l’armature ainsi que la résistance en compression du béton afin d’examiner leur effet sur la résistance au cisaillement des dalles. Le comportement des dalles testées a été examiné en considérant le réseau de fissures, la charge ultime ainsi que les modes de rupture. Aussi, une base de données comprenant 203 poutres et dalles unidirectionnelles en béton armé de PRF rompues en cisaillement a été répertoriée et introduite dans les analyses. Les charges de rupture en cisaillement des dalles testées dans le cadre de cette thèse ainsi que celles de la base de données ont été comparées à celles prédites par les équations de calcul proposées par la normes canadiennes CSA S6-06/S1 et CSA S806-12, ainsi que celles des deux guides de calcul ACI 440.1R-06 et JSCE-97. Les analyses effectuées ont montré que les valeurs prédites par les équations de calcul proposées par l’ACI 440.1R-06 sont très conservatrices, alors que celles prédites par celles de JSCE-97 sont en meilleur accord avec les valeurs expérimentales. Aussi, les résultats obtenus ont montré que les équations de la nouvelle norme CSA S806-12 prédisent bien la résistance au cisaillement expérimentale. Toutefois, une amélioration de l'équation de la norme CSAS806-12, conduisant à de meilleurs résultats, est proposée. Par ailleurs, les résultats obtenus dans le cadre de cette thèse ont mené à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de rupture et des facteurs principaux qui contribuent à la résistance au cisaillement de dalles unidirectionnelles en béton armée de PRF. Enfin, des recommandations pour des travaux futurs y sont également formulées. // Abstract : Bridge deck and parking garage slabs are exposed to aggressive environments particularly in the North American regions resulting from the excessive use of de-icing salts. Fiber-reinforced-polymer (FRP) reinforcements have emerged as a practical and sustainable anti-corrosive reinforcing material with superior tensile strength to overcome the corrosion problem. High comfort level and increase use of the material is currently seen. Protection and regulations policies of some Public North American agencies currently include GFRP reinforcing bars as premium reinforcement. Shear behaviour in RC slabs is examined since most of the bridge deck and parking garage slabs are shear critical. However, there is still no agreement in FRP design codes and guidelines for shear strength equations. Several design code equations are still based on empirical relationships while recent developments are based on shear theories. The complex nature of shear phenomena which is influenced by many parameters, in addition to the existence of various schools of thoughts in shear, makes it difficult to find a general agreement on a unified equation. Huge research efforts are being established, however better understanding for the shear behaviour and failure mechanisms for unidirectional FRP RC slabs is still needed. In this research study, an experimental program was designed to investigate the shear behaviour of one-way concrete slabs reinforced with different types of FRP bars. A total of twenty one concrete slabs reinforced with FRP bars in addition to a steel reinforced slab were constructed and tested to failure under two-point loading. The variation in the concrete contribution to the shear strength V[subscript c] is investigated with respect to FRP reinforcement properties. Newly developed GFRP bars with high modulus, which were not previously investigated in the literature, are used. Different FRP reinforcement properties were included in the study such as reinforcement ratio, modulus of elasticity and axial stiffness, type of bars, and reinforcement configuration. Also, normal concrete and high strength concrete were considered in the research program. Analysis of the experimental results included the general behavior of the tested slabs, crack patterns, ultimate capacities, and modes of failure, load deflection relationships as well as the concrete and reinforcement strains. Test results of the present investigation indicate an influence of the reinforcement type, bar diameter, and the shear stiffness of the bars on the mode of failure and the shear strength. The experimental investigation and analysis of test results provided better understanding of concerning mechanisms of failure and factors contributing to the shear capacity of FRP RC slabs. A refined shear model to the CSA S806-12 is introduced and found to provide better results compared to the existing design codes and guidelines. The model is based on regression analysis of an experimental database. The database is assembled from twenty five different studies in addition to the present investigation. The used database includes 203 unidirectional members reinforced with FRP bars (without shear reinforcement) failing in shear. The model was evaluated through the experimental concrete shear capacities (V[subscript c exp]) of the database and found to provide good predictions. The experimental shear capacities of the database ( V[subscript c exp]) was compared to their corresponding predicted shear capacities (Vcpred ) using CSA S806-12, CAN/CSA-S6.1S1, ACI 440.1R-06, and JSCE-97. It was found that the ACI guide is very conservative. It can be noted that using this guide in its present form may reduce the economic competitiveness of fibre-reinforced polymers. JSCE recommendations are in better agreement with the test results. The Canadian CSA S806-12 equation was found to be in good fit with the experimental shear capacities.

The aim of this thesis is to assess the suitability of cold-formed rectangular hollow sections (RHS) for plastic design. The project involved an extensive range of tests on cold-formed Grade C350 and Grade C450 (DuraGal) RHS beams, joints and frames. A large number of finite element analyses was also carried out on models of RHS beams. The conclusion is that cold- formed RHS can be used in plastic design, but stricter element slenderness (b/t) limits and consideration of the connections, are required. Further research, particularly into the effect of axial compression on element slenderness limits, is required before changes to current design rules can be finalised. Bending tests were performed on cold-formed RHS to examine the web and flange slenderness required to maintain the plastic moment for a large enough rotation suitable for plastic design. The major conclusions of the beam tests were: (i) Some sections which are classified as Compact or Class 1 by current steel design specifications do not maintain plastic rotations considered sufficient for plastic design. (ii) The current design philosophy, in which flange and web slenderness limits are independent, is inappropriate. An interaction formula is required, and simple formulations are proposed for RHS. Connection tests were performed on various types of knee joints in RHS, suitable for the column - rafter connection in a portal frame. The connection types investigated were welded stiffened and unstiffened rigid knee connections, bolted plate knee joints, and welded and bolted internal sleeve knee joints, for use in RHS portal frames. The ability of the connections to act as plastic hinges in a portal frame was investigated. The most important finding of the joint tests was the unexpected fracture of the cold-formed welded connections under opening moment before significant plastic rotations occurred. The use of an internal sleeve moved the plastic hinge in the connection away from the connection centre- line thus eliminating the need for the weld between the RHS, or the RHS and the stiffening plate, to carry the majority of the load. The internal sleeve connections were capable of sustaining the plastic moment for large rotations considered suitable for plastic design. Tests on pinned-base portal frames were also performed. There were three separate tests, with two different ratios of vertical to horizontal point loads, simulating gravity and horizontal wind loads. Two grades of steel were used for comparison. The aims of the tests were to examine if a plastic collapse mechanism could form in a cold-formed RHS frame, and to investigate if plastic design was suitable for such frames. In each frame, two regions of highly concentrated curvature were observed before the onset of local buckling, which indicated the formation of plastic hinges and a plastic collapse mechanism. An advanced plastic zone structural analysis which accounted for second order effects, material non-linearity and member imperfections slightly overestimated the strength of the frames. The analysis slightly underestimated the deflections, and hence the magnitude of the second order effects. A second order plastic zone analysis, which did not account for the effects of structural imperfections, provided the best estimates of the strengths of the frames, but also underestimated the deflections. While cold-formed RHS did not satisfy the material ductility requirements specified for plastic design in some current steel design standards, plastic hinges and plastic collapse mechanisms formed. This suggests that the restriction on plastic design for cold-formed RHS based on insufficient material ductility is unnecessary, provided that the connections are suitable for plastic hinge formation, if required. A large number of finite element analyses were performed to simulate the bending tests summarised above, and to examine various parameters not studied in the experimental investigation. To simulate the experimental rotation capacity of the RHS beams, a sinusoidally varying longitudinal local imperfection was prescribed. The finite element analysis determined similar trends as observed experimentally, namely that the rotation capacity depended on both the web slenderness and flange slenderness, and that for a given section aspect ratio, the relationship between web slenderness and rotation capacity was non-linear. The main finding of the finite element study was that the size of the imperfections had an unexpectedly large influence on the rotation capacity. Larger imperfections were required in the more slender sections to simulate the experimental results. There should be further investigation into the effect of varying material properties on rotation capacity.