There is no doubt that, regardless of the standards used or point of view chosen, Central America is underdeveloped. What needs to be understood is that the problem of underdevelopment is only partly indigenous, and to a large degree quite recent. This thesis will look at both external and internal actors, acting independently as well as in alliance, in order to explain their role in underdeveloping the region. I have chosen to focus on two key aspects, trade and foreign investment, in which both actors have played an important role, and which I consider having had, and still have, the most devastating effect on Central America. By means of a historical analysis of the Central American states, I will show how their incorporation into the capitalist world resulted in the underdevelopment of the whole region. / Master of Arts / incomplete_metadata

The present study examines the trade patterns of Less - Developed Countries from 1978 to 1986. Trade data for twenty-five developing countries is examined to test the hypothesis that there are universal factors effecting the development of every country. The hypothesis predicts that as economic development progresses, the proportion of total trade in primary goods will decrease while the proportion of total trade in manufactured goods will increase. In order to test what is a long run phenomena for countries with relatively short time periods of data available, a pooled cross-sectional model is utilized. / Master of Arts

Technical factors, such as engineering and medical approaches, and non-technical factors, such as education and community participation, were evaluated with regard to how they affect water and sanitation programs. Benefits and limitations of each factor were assessed to determine which limitations significantly impact the effectiveness of programs. With this appreciation of technical and nontechnical factors, case studies of control methods of different diseases were evaluated. This led to recommendations of appropriate mixes of technical and non-technical services for disease control. This evaluation was utilized to develop a planning approach to effectively integrate interagency efforts for the control of multiple diseases. / Master of Science

This research is concerned with the professional culture of planners and planning consultants working on aspects of urban planning and management in Third World settings. Research on planners' professional culture is of intrinsic value in development studies, where little is known about the socio-economic background, values, attitudes, and role orientations of either group despite the key roles both groups play in the management of human settlements. The particular point of departure here, however, is the significance of such research to planning studies. Of particular relevance, in this context, are the critical notions in the current literature on Third World urbanization and planning that the skills and attitudes of planning professionals are not attuned to the economic, social, and environmental questions which lie behind the material aspects of human habitat in Third World countries. This, it is contended, is in part due to the socialization of Third World planners to Western attitudes, standards, and values during their professional training in industrialized countries. The research reported here represents an attempt to explore these issues, drawing on samples of planning practitioners in several Third World countries (Barbados, Jamaica, India, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) and of planning consultants and academics working regularly on urban problems in Third World settings. The results were derived from a questionnaire survey designed to elicit information on respondents’ role orientations and values, and on their attitudes toward specific issues that relate to the theory and practice of urban planning and management. These include attitudes toward rural-urban migration, the informal sector, squatter settlements, self-help service provision, the use of Western versus indigenous methods and solutions, and receptiveness to current ideas about project replicability and cost recovery. Findings revealed that Third World planners and planning consultants do share some important professional traits as well as elements of a common culture, with a core of shared ideology, similar to that found among developed-world planners despite the differences in contextual detail. Nonetheless, the study findings point to significant overall differences in the attitudes of Third World planners and planning consultants toward planning issues and professional role orientations. The typical Third World planner is a middle-class male of mid-career age who attaches a good deal of importance to his profession and supports the notion of success via technical competence, and administrative and managerial skills, and yet at the same time pragmatic and grassroots oriented. Furthermore, Third World planners as a group do not see the profession as elitist, nor do they regard Western concepts, methods, or training in developed-world institutions as inappropriate to their professional roles. The typical planning consultant, on the other hand, though also male is somewhat older, is more likely to have a social science than a planning, architecture, or engineering background is more likely to have a higher degree and is rather skeptical about professional effectiveness and egalitarianism. It is suggested here that the difference between these actors emanates from the differences in the modus operandi of each group. In short, whereas planning consultants have the luxury to conceptualize problems and solutions in stable environments, insulated from the cut and thrust of local practice, Third World planners operating in environments afflicted with rapid change, uncertainty, and instability are of necessity compelled to adopt a more pragmatic outlook. Thus despite the seeming overpowering circumstances, Third World planners were found to be guardedly optimistic, quietly confident, and resiliently content to pursue their ideals. lt was thus concluded that contextual factors to which planners are exposed to are major determinant of planners' professional role orientations and world-views. / Ph. D.

The dissertation presents a system dynamics model for national industrial development in developing economies. A development system is defined by national boundary, components and activities. The system is represented by ten activity sectors grouped into three functional classes: (1) Two driving sectors comprising population and investment capital sectors; (2) Seven industrial sectors: resources, manufacturing, agriculture, physical infrastructure, services, technology, and social infrastructure; and (3) An outlet sector represented by a trade sector. The model's general theory of industrial development dynamics is described by causal feedback loops. A causal feedback loop consists of two or more interrelated variables where a change in one of the loop's variables causes all others to change as well. The industrial development model's specific structure evolved by applying the causal feedback theory to the system activity sectors. The model is written in DYNAMO, a continuous system, computer simulation language. A prototype model run illustrated the basic development process and possible effects of alternative policies. Several conclusions were drawn regarding sensitive system parameters and various development policies. In addition, three developing-country examples representing low, middle, and high income groups were evaluated. Recommendations about model use and system analysis were presented. The industrial development model is intended to aid during development analysis and planning phases. / Ph. D.

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: When considering the attitude of a workforce towards their work and ways of increasing their motivation, attention must be given to their culture. Attitudes within In this study the influence of culture on the implementation of ergonomics was studied with specific reference to the transfer of technology in developing countries. Cultural diversity factors such as language/communication, religious beliefs, anthropometrics, educational background time, ethnicity values, attitude and values was measured using a specially designed questionnaire. It was completed by eighteen managers representing seven large industries in the Mpumalanga province. The cultural factor with the highest significance was 'time'. Others with high significance were educational background, attitude, language/communication and values. Ethnicity values, anthropometrics and religious beliefs were cultural factors which was not considered to be significant, however the population was very small and it is considered that they do contribute towards the implementation of ergonomICS. Training, imported technology and management are external factors, which make a useful and practical contribution to the subject of Ergonomics and the implementation thereof in organizations. If understood, cultural factors provide a much richer environment and different viewpoints, which can increase productivity by the effective use of technology. an organization are due to the attitudes that exist in the culture from which the members of the organization have come. Management practices, therefore, must cope with the attitudes and prejudices of the cultures within the organization. These cultures have been influenced by many factors like religious doctrine and history, not primarily concerned with the efficiency and productivity of the organization. Ergonomics aim at the optimization of the interaction between human and machine and the operating environment. This can provide the information necessary to promote an acceptable and efficient interaction between human-machine and environment in any form of a human-at-work system. In the process of technology transfer from Industrial Developed Countries to Industrial Developing Countries, emphasis is laid on economic progress. Although improvement of the economic situation and the standard of living is important to achieve, neglecting ergonomic considerations is both economically expensive and socially disturbing, thus creating negative effects in the country acquiring the technology. Ergonomics serve as a link between human factor considerations and the transfer of technology. A comprehensive systems model of Ergonomics was used, which indicates the interaction between facets emphasizing information as a core dynamic process, which can be useful to ensure optimality of choices of technology. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Wanneer 'n werkerskorps ondersoek word met betrekking tot hul houdings teenoor werk en wyses om hul motivering te verhoog, moet aandag geskenk word aan hul kultuur. Houdings binne 'n organisasie ontstaan uit houdings wat reeds bestaan in die kultuur waaruit lede van die organisasie oorspronklik kom. Bestuurspraktyke moet die houdinge en bevooroordelings van kulture binne die organisasie hanteer. Hierdie kulture is beYnvloed deur vele faktore soos geloofsdoktrines en geskiedenis wat nie primer gerig is op die effektiwiteit en produktiwiteit van die organisasie nie. Ergonomika het ten doel die optimisering van die interaksie tussen mens en masjien en die omgewing van funksionering, wat die nodige inligting kan voorsien wat nodig is om aanvaarbare en effektiewe interaksie te bewerkstellig tussen mens, masjien en die omgewing ten opsige van enige mens-by-sy-werk sisteem. In die proses van tegnologiese oordrag vanaf Industriele Ontwikkelde Lande na Industriele Ontwikkelende Lande, word klem gele op ekonomiese vooruitgang. Alhoewel verbetering van die ekonomiese situasie en 'n verhoging van die standaard van lewe belangrik is om te bereik, sal die verwaardlosing van ergonomiese oorwegings beide ekonomies duur en sosiaal verontrustend wees en gevolglik negatiewe effekte veroorsaak binne die land wat die tegnologie moet verkry. Ergonomika dien as 'n skakel tussen die menslike faktor oorwegings en die oordrag van tegnologie. 'n Omvattende sisteem model van Ergonomika dui op die interaksie tussen belangrike fasette van inligting as 'n dinamiese kern proses wat bruikbaar kan wees by die optimisering van keuses van tegnologie. In hierdie studie word die invloed van kulturele faktore op die implementering van ergonomika bestudeer met spesifieke verwysing na die oordrag van tegnologie. Kulturele diversiteitsfaktore soos taal/kommunikasie, gelowe, antropometrie, opvoedkundige agtergrond, tyd, etniese waardes, houding en waardes is gemeet deur 'n spesiaal ontwerpte vraelys. Dit is voltooi deur agtien bestuurders wat sewe groot industriee in die Mpumalanga provinsie verteenwoordig. Die kulturele faktor wat as die mees beduidend gemeet het is 'tyd'. Ander beduidende faktore is opvoedkundige agtergrond, houdings, taal/kommunikasie en waardes. Nie beduidende faktore naamlik, etnisiteit, antropometrie en gelowe is weI beskou as bydraend in die implementering van ergonomika aangesien die populasie wat gemeet is as relatief klein beskou kan word en moontlik in 'n groter populasie as beduidend kon meet. Opleiding, ingevoerde tegnologie en bestuur is eksterne faktore wat 'n waardevolle en praktiese bydrae maak tot die vakgebied en die implementering van Ergonomika. Kulturele diversiteit voorsien 'n ryk omgewing met verskillende uitgangspunte en indien dit verstaan word kan dit lei tot verhoogde produktiwiteit deur verbeterde gebruik van tegnologie.

Over the past few decades, many countries have experienced a marked decline in the volatility of output. However, there is still a significant difference between developed and developing countries in the level of output volatility. A proposed explanation for this phenomenon is the impact of economic policies on output volatility in developing countries. The empirical results reported in this study support this view. Trade openness and discretionary fiscal policy seem to increase volatility in developing countries, while the converse is true in developed countries. Furthermore, a flexible exchange rate regime is desirable to decrease volatility. However, many developing countries still use fixed rates for reasons such as a fear of floating, which contributes to volatility. The impact of monetary policy was found to be stabilising, but this could be the result of a favourable global economic environment. It should be noted, however, that uncontrollable factors such as financial systems and institutions play a vital role in all the above relationships. / Economics / M.Com. (Economics)

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to think anew about the involvement of the Christian churches in strategic development. The author undertook such an exercise in an abstract and general manner, not by undertaking specific case studies, but by applying various development and social sciences debates to come to a new understanding of the churches' meaningful participation in the broad area of development. The notion of the churches as 'idea' and 'value' institutions in the field of development was particularly developed. The study found its critical point of departure in the ecumenical theological debate on development over the last four decades. The first three chapters show how the charity-development juxtaposition in ecumenical development discourse problematises and frames the historical and actual participation of the churches in development. It is indicated that this discourse poses a critical theoretical and ideological challenge not only to the churches' socio-economic involvement through charity, but also to the mainstream secular development enterprise. It is concluded through the pragmatic debate in the broader ecumenical development discourse that an enduring divide exists between progressive theoretical thinking on the churches' participation in development and the actual development practices of the churches. It is concluded, akin to an historical charity involvement, that the churches have, generally speaking, been over-investing in project approaches to development at the cost of modes of engagement which highlight an idea- and value-centred development praxis. In chapters four to seven the argument is further developed through the conceptual framework of third and fourth generation development strategies. Through ideas on this conceptual framework, which were first formulated by David Korten in NGO and peoplecentred development debates, but which have also been extended to broader 'alternative' development and social sciences debates within the analytic framework of this study, the idea- and value-centred perspective in this study was further worked out and applied to the churches. It is concluded that the conceptual framework of third generation development strategies poses an appropriate (public) challenge to the churches to become involved in the policy-making, managerial and organisational processes of development. In contrast to a 'politics of limited space' which the third generation mode presents to the churches, it is maintained that the 'unlimited political space' of the fourth generation mode of development involvement is more appropriate to the churches. It is argued that the churches could most effectively and meaningfully participate in the new transnational social movement 'value' and 'idea' politics (e.g. peace, human rights, women, environment, democracy, people-centred development) prioritised in the fourth generation strategic perspective. This argument is further worked out in the final chapter through the proposal of four beacons of action that may guide the churches to become meaningful participants in fourth (and third) generation strategic development action, namely (i) the new social movements, (ii) the new communication solidarities, (iii) alternative development policy, and (iv) 'soft culture'. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om opnuut te dink oor die strategiese betrokkenheid van die kerke in ontwikkeling. Die skrywer het sodanige oefening op 'n abstrakte en algemene wyse onderneem deur geen spesifieke gevalle studies te doen nie, maar deur verskeie ontwikkelings- en sosiaal wetenskaplike debatte toe te pas om tot 'n nuwe verstaan van die kerke se betekenisvolle deelname in die breë veld van ontwikkeling te kom. Die konsep van die kerke as 'idee' en 'waarde' instellings in die veld van ontwikkeling is spesifiek ontwikkel. Die studie het die ekumeniese teologiese debat oor ontwikkeling van die laaste vier dekades as kritiese vertrekpunt geneem. In die eerste drie hoofstukke word aangetoon hoe die barmhartigheid-ontwikkeling jukstaposisie in die ekumeniese ontwikkelingsdiskoers die historiese en teenswoordige deelname van die kerke in ontwikkeling problematiseer en bepaal. Daar word aangedui hoe hierdie diskoers nie slegs 'n kritiese teoretiese en ideologiese uitdaging aan die kerke se sosioekonomiese betrokkenheid deur middel van barmhartigheidswerk bied nie, maar ook aan die hoofstroom sekulêre ontwikkelingsonderneming. Aan die hand van die pragmatiese debat in die breër ekumeniese ontwikkelingsdiskoers word die gevolgtrekking gemaak dat daar 'n blywende skeiding bestaan tussen progressiewe teoretiese denke oor die kerke se deelname aan ontwikkeling en die teenswoordige ontwikkelingspraktyke van die kerke. Daar word gekonkludeer dat die kerke op 'n soortgelyke wyse as hulle historiese betrokkenheid deur middel van barmhartigheidswerk in die algemeen oorgeïnvesteer het in projek benaderings tot ontwikkeling ten koste van maniere van betrokkenheid wat 'n idee en waarde gesentreerde ontwikkelingspraktyk beklemtoon. In hoofstukke vier tot sewe word die argument verder ontwikkel aan die hand van die konseptuele raamwerk van derde en vierde generasie ontwikkelingstrategieë. Aan die hand van idees oor hierdie konseptuele raamwerk, wat eerstens deur David Korten in NRO en mensgesentreerde ontwikkelingsdebatte geformuleer is, maar binne die analitiese raamwerk van hierdie studie ook neerslag vind in wyer 'alternatiewe' ontwikkelings- en sosiaal wetenskaplike debatte, is die idee en waarde gesentreerde perspektief in die studie verder uitgewerk en toegepas op die kerke. Die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat die konseptuele raamwerk van derde generasie ontwikkelingstrategieë 'n gepaste (publieke) uitdaging aan die kerke bied om betrokke te raak by die beleidmakende, bestuurs- en organisatoriese prosesse van ontwikkeling. Teenoor 'n 'politiek van beperkte ruimte' wat die derde generasie wyse van betrokkenheid vir die kerke verteenwoordig, word volgehou dat die 'onbeperkte politieke ruimte' van die vierde generasie wyse van betrokkenheid meer gepas is vir die kerke. Daar word geargumenteer dat die kerke op 'n mees effektiewe en betekenisvolle wyse sou kon deelneem aan die 'waarde' en 'idee' politiek (bv. vrede, mense regte, vroue, omgewing, demokrasie, mensgesentreede ontwikkeling) wat in die vierde generasie strategiese perspektief voorrang geniet. Hierdie argument word verder uitgewerk in die finale hoofstuk deur die voorstel van vier bakens van aksie wat as rigtingwyser kan dien vir die kerke se voorgenome betekenisvolle deelname in vierde (en derde) generasie strategiese ontwikkelingsaksie, naamlik (i) die nuwe sosiale bewegings, (ii) die nuwe kommunikasie solidariteite, (iii) alternatiewe ontwikkelingsbeleid en (iv) 'sagte kultuur'.

The objective of the thesis was to study monetary policy frameworks in developing countries. The thesis focused on three aspects of the monetary framework; the degree of central bank independence, the monetary policy strategy and the exchange rate regime. The research applied quantitative empirical analysis and in-depth case studies on Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon. The empirical research investigated three areas: 1) the phenomenon of ‘fear of floating’ and the correlation between exchange rate and macroeconomic volatility; 2) the degree of monetary policy independence in developing countries in the context of their increased integration into the global economic system; and 3) the degree of central bank independence and how it impacts both ‘fear of floating’ and monetary policy independence. The case studies allowed for an in-depth understanding of the process of setting monetary policy and the constraints under which it is formulated in developing countries. The results that emerged from the quantitative analysis highlight the impact of central bank independence in influencing the other aspects of the monetary framework, as it can mitigate fear of floating and contribute to increased monetary policy independence of world interest rates in developing countries. The case studies detailed the evolution of monetary frameworks in three countries with varying degrees of central bank independence. The degree of central bank independence increased in Egypt and Jordan as a result of severe currency crises in each country, while Lebanon provides a very different example of a developing country with an independent central bank since its inception. The conclusions that emerged from the cases suggest that central bank independence is critical in achieving exchange rate and price stability; however, developing countries should avoid focusing on exchange rate stability at the expense of other considerations for extended periods of time. In that, the results point to the benefits of proactively and pre-emptively managing the exchange rate regime. The cases also highlight the importance of the coordination between fiscal and monetary policies, as conditions of fiscal profligacy can undermine even the most independent central bank.

A research report submitted to the Wits School of Education, University of Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Education Submission 17 October 2016 / As access to formal schooling has expanded all over the world, there is acknowledgement that the quality of learning in many schooling systems, including South Africa, is extremely weak. Nationally representative samples of South African children participated in the PIRLS 2006 and pre-PIRLS 2011 studies, along with 48 other countries as a benchmarking exercise to measure the literacy levels of primary schools according to international standards. The PIRLS 2006 study indicated that more than 80% of South African children had not yet learned to read with meaning by grade 5. The pre-PIRLS results provided a new baseline of reading literacy levels for Grade 4 learners in South Africa, 29% of Grade 4 learners that participated did not have the rudimentary reading skills required at a Grade 2 level. Learners tested in African languages, particularly Sepedi and Tshivenda, achieved the lowest performance overall and were considered to be educationally at risk (University of Pretoria, 2012). The context in which schooling takes place is key in understanding learner performance in South Africa. After decades of differential provision of education on the basis of race, the education system has been overhauled since the early 1990s. The South African government has introduced several initiatives and policies to address these systemic imbalances. All things considered, South Africa’s learner performance has remained poor, even relative to several poorer countries in the region. There is a wealth of research describing weaknesses in the education system. However, going a step further and identifying resources and practices that actually improve learner performance is central to improving education planning, policy and ultimately classroom practice. Rigorous evidence on classroom-based practice and resources that will have a measurable effect on learner performance in a developing country like South Africa is limited. The most significant shortfall of non-experimental evaluation methods (including qualitative and many quantitative approaches) is the absence of a valid estimate of the counterfactual – what outcomes would have been obtained amongst programme beneficiaries had they not received the programme. This often leads to the reporting of large positive effects of programmes being evaluated. By using a lottery to allocate participants to an intervention and a control group, the Randomised Control Trial (RCT) methodology constructs a credible ‘counterfactual’ scenario – what might have happened to those who received an intervention had they not received it. This study provides a systematic literature-based argument on why RCTs should be part of the methodological options education researchers and policy makers consider in developing countries such as South Africa. Both the strengths and limitations of RCTs are discussed in light of the debate on RCTs and evaluation methods in education, as well as the technical critique of the methodology. The main critique of external validity is also elaborated on with efforts that may be taken to diminish the limitations discussed. In addition, the study illustrates the value of RCTs using data from two South Africa RCTs on early grade reading interventions through a secondary analysis of the RCT data. The first case study in Chapter 4, is the Reading Catch-Up Programme (RCUP) conducted in Pinetown, KwaZulu-Natal. The main findings of the RCUP evaluation were that although learners in intervention schools improved their test scores between the baseline and the endline assessment, the learners in comparison schools improved by a similar margin. The results should contribute to a sobering realisation that the effects of the various interventions introduced by education stakeholders including NGOs and government are not obviously positive or more importantly, different from normal schooling. This points to the need to evaluate programmes before they are rolled out provincially or nationally, using RCTs and other rigorous methods. The new analysis of data in this study explores the so-called “Matthew Effect” - the notion that initially better-performing children typically gain more from additional interventions and from schooling itself. The data from the RCUP RCT indicates that children with higher baseline test scores benefited from the intervention, whereas children with very low English proficiency at the outset did not benefit from the programme. Although females significantly outperform males in the reading tests used, there was no clear evidence of a differential effect of the intervention by gender. The Matthew Effect therefore seems to be driven by prior knowledge and not gender or any other characteristic that was measured in the data. The second case study in Chapter 5, is the Early Grade Reading Study (EGRS) conducted in the North West province. The EGRS may be seen as a more extensive follow-up to the RCUP to answer some of the unanswered questions. For example, will an early grade reading intervention that is implemented over a longer duration (two years) have an impact? Can intervening right at the start of school be a strategic point to intervene? Can a Home Language literacy intervention have lasting educational benefits? In conclusion, although the policy formulation and evaluation process should draw on research using a variety of methods, the policy process will certainly be impoverished if there is a lack of research meeting two core criteria: interventions and findings that are relevant to the larger schooling population; and the precise measurement of the causal impact of interventions and/or policies. This study makes a clear literature-based argument on the contribution of internally valid methods, specifically RCTs in fulfilling these criteria and illustrates this with two case studies of RCTS. The study also provides a demonstration of the insights that are possible through secondary analysis founded on the richness of RCT data. / MT2017