Apesar da grande melhora nos resultados de desenvolvimento embrionário in vitro, cerca de 40% dos oócitos bovinos fecundados não completam o desenvolvimento na fase de pré-implantação. Diversos fatores estão relacionados a este fenômeno, conhecido como bloqueio do desenvolvimento embrionário. Partindo da premissa que o bloqueio no desenvolvimento ocorre normalmente, durante a ativação do genoma embrionário, aproximadamente, no 4º ciclo celular em bovinos, formulou-se a hipótese de que os genes transcritos no momento da ativação do genoma embrionário estão relacionados ao bloqueio. Nesta tese, um sistema fluorescente de Differential Display PCR (DDPCR) foi desenvolvido para isolar e identificar fragmentos de mRNAs expressos diferencialmente entre embriões que se desenvolvem mais rápido e com melhor taxa de desenvolvimento e aqueles que apresentam desenvolvimento mais lento e com maior taxa de bloqueio. Dentre 176 fragmentos recuperados, 27 foram clonados, seqüenciados e 30 genes identificados. Dois genes, PI3K e ITM2B foram quantificados pela PCR em tempo real. Os resultados sugerem que duas diferentes ativações do genoma podem estar ocorrendo: o grupo de desenvolvimento rápido ativa genes ligados ao desenvolvimento embrionário e, o grupo lento ativa os genes ligados à sobrevivência ou morte celular. / The embryonic developmental block occurs at the 8-cell stage in bovine and is characterized for a lengthening of the cell cycle. At the same stage, also takes place the maternal-embryonic transition (i.e. the activation of the embryonic genome). These events are highly correlated and many genes are activated at the 4th cell cycle however, their functions are mostly unknown. The study of gene expression during this stage will help understand the mechanisms involved in the maternal-embryonic transition and ultimately lead to improvements of in vitro embryo production rates. The aim of this study was to identify genes differentially expressed between bovine embryos with or without developmental competence to reach the blastocyst stage, using Differential Display PCR methodology. Embryos with fast cleavage divisions showing 8 cells at 48 hpi and high potential of development (R8), and embryos with slow cleavage divisions showing 4 cells at 48hpi (L4) and 8 cells at 80 hpi (L8), both with reduced rates of development to blastocyst, were analyzed. We developed an alternative protocol for amplification and recovery of differentially expressed genes from extremely small initial amounts of RNA (10 to 25 pg of mRNA) from preimplantation bovine embryos without need of radio-isotopes. A total of 176 differentially expressed bands were recovered, 27 isolated-fragments were cloned and sequenced confirming the expected primer sequences and allowing the recognition identification of 30 gene transcripts related to bovine embryonic physiology. Two genes, PI3K and ITM2B were chosen for relative quantification of mRNA using Real-Time PCR. Results suggest two different embryonic genome activation mechanisms: fast-developing embryos activate genes related to embryonic development, and slow-developing embryos activate genes related to cellular survival and/or death.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants that can be modified to oxygenated PAH (oxyPAHs) derivatives. It is well known that oxyPAHs tend to be much more reactive than their parent compounds. Toxicity can be attributed to direct interaction with target molecules or generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Metals are another class of contaminant found ubiquitously throughout the environment. Some metals are toxic at levels below the 1:1 ratio predicted by the biotic ligand model and are thought to manifest toxicity through ROS generation. Often metals and PAHs occur as co-contaminants in industrialized environments, yet little is known about their potential co-toxicity or mechanisms of action in mammalian reproductive function. Previously, we described that a PAH, 9, 10-phenanthrenequinone (PHEQ), inhibited LH-stimulated progesterone secretion in dispersed rat corpus luteal (CL) cells (Nykamp et al., 2001). Viability was decreased in CL cells exposed to PHEQ and 1,2-dihydroxy-anthraquinone (1,2-dhATQ), but not their parent compounds phenanthrene (PHE) or anthracene (ANT). Similarly, LH-stimulated progesterone production in CL cells was inhibited by PHEQ and 1,2-dhATQ, but not PHE. Further investigation revealed that PHEQ, but not PHE, ANT nor 1,2-dhATQ generated ROS in CL cells. Viability experiments were repeated using the choriocarcinoma cell line JEG-3 with similar results. Various metals were assessed for their toxicity to both CL and JEG-3 cells. The endpoints used to measure viability were metabolic activity and membrane integrity. In general, metabolic activity was a more sensitive indicator of toxicity than membrane integrity. The order of toxicity for metals in CL cells was Hg2+ > Cd2+ > Zn2+ > Ni2+ > Cu2+ for metabolic activity and Hg2+ ≈ Zn2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Ni2+ for membrane integrity. Only Hg2+ and Cu2+ were tested in JEG-3 cells. While Cu2+ was non-toxic, EC50s for Hg2+ metabolic activity and membrane integrity were 20 mM and 23 mM, respectively. Experiments were designed to study the mixtures of metals and PAHs on viability, ROS production, and LH-stimulated progesterone production in CL cells. Mixtures of each metal with either PHEQ or 1,2-dhATQ were incubated with CL cells and their effect on metabolic activity and membrane integrity assessed. Generally, most metal/oxyPAH mixtures displayed only additive toxicity. However, mixtures of Cu2+ and PHEQ showed synergistic toxicity to both metabolic activity and membrane integrity. Mixture studies in JEG-3 cells used only combinations of Cu2+ or Hg2+ with PHEQ or 1,2-dhATQ. Similar results to metabolic activity and membrane integrity in CL cells were observed. Mixtures of Cu2+ and PHEQ or 1,2-dhATQ were tested in CL cells for their effect on LH-stimulated progesterone secretion and ROS production. Additive effects were observed in both LH-stimulated progesterone secretion and ROS production for Cu2+/1,2-dhATQ mixtures while synergistic effects for both parameters were seen with Cu2+/PHEQ. Efforts to determine the site of action for mixtures of Cu2+/PHEQ involved adding the cholesterol analogue, 22-OH cholesterol (22-OHC) to CL cells in the absence of LH. Cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage (CYP450scc) enzyme operates constitutively and the addition of 22-OHC to CL cells resulting in a 5-fold increase in progesterone production without added LH. Kinetic assays with 22-OHC show that while progesterone secretion was inhibited with PHEQ addition alone, a further significant reduction with both Cu2+ and PHEQ was not observed. The use of forskolin, an activator of adenylate cyclase, did not show any significant enhancement of progesterone secretion with the addition of Cu2+/PHEQ compared to PHEQ alone. The potential targets of Cu2+/PHEQ mixture include any step in the steroidogenic cascade from activation of protein kinase A onward with the proteins of the mitochondria, cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme and steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, being the most likely. Differential display polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) was a molecular approach taken to determine the effect of PHEQ on JEG-3 gene expression. The genes whose expression appeared to be up-regulated with PHEQ exposure were serine protease inhibitor, Alu repeat sequence, heterogeneous ribonuclear ribonucleoprotein C (hnRNP C), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 (eIF3), nucleoporin-like protein, eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1a1 (eEF1 a 1), autophagy-linked FYVE domain (Alfy), spectrin, and proteasome. Apparent down-regulated genes in JEG-3 cells after PHEQ exposure included poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 10 (PARP10), polyglutamine binding protein-1 (PQBP-1), heterogeneous ribonuclear ribonucleoprotein C (hnRNP C), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A), and keratin. In both cell types, oxyPAHs were more toxic than their parent compounds. Metals showed greater toxicity to metabolic activity than to membrane integrity. Of the combinations tested, only PHEQ and Cu2+ exhibited synergistic toxicity. ROS generation was the likely mechanism behind PHEQ/Cu2+ toxicity. Both cell types used represent critical roles in human reproductive health. The proper production of progesterone, a critical hormone for the maintenance of pregnancy in mammals, represents a unique endpoint for the assessment of toxicity. These results illustrate the need to study modified oxyPAHs, metals and metal/oxyPAH mixtures for their potential impact on human reproductive health.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants that can be modified to oxygenated PAH (oxyPAHs) derivatives. It is well known that oxyPAHs tend to be much more reactive than their parent compounds. Toxicity can be attributed to direct interaction with target molecules or generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Metals are another class of contaminant found ubiquitously throughout the environment. Some metals are toxic at levels below the 1:1 ratio predicted by the biotic ligand model and are thought to manifest toxicity through ROS generation. Often metals and PAHs occur as co-contaminants in industrialized environments, yet little is known about their potential co-toxicity or mechanisms of action in mammalian reproductive function. Previously, we described that a PAH, 9, 10-phenanthrenequinone (PHEQ), inhibited LH-stimulated progesterone secretion in dispersed rat corpus luteal (CL) cells (Nykamp et al., 2001). Viability was decreased in CL cells exposed to PHEQ and 1,2-dihydroxy-anthraquinone (1,2-dhATQ), but not their parent compounds phenanthrene (PHE) or anthracene (ANT). Similarly, LH-stimulated progesterone production in CL cells was inhibited by PHEQ and 1,2-dhATQ, but not PHE. Further investigation revealed that PHEQ, but not PHE, ANT nor 1,2-dhATQ generated ROS in CL cells. Viability experiments were repeated using the choriocarcinoma cell line JEG-3 with similar results. Various metals were assessed for their toxicity to both CL and JEG-3 cells. The endpoints used to measure viability were metabolic activity and membrane integrity. In general, metabolic activity was a more sensitive indicator of toxicity than membrane integrity. The order of toxicity for metals in CL cells was Hg2+ > Cd2+ > Zn2+ > Ni2+ > Cu2+ for metabolic activity and Hg2+ ≈ Zn2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Ni2+ for membrane integrity. Only Hg2+ and Cu2+ were tested in JEG-3 cells. While Cu2+ was non-toxic, EC50s for Hg2+ metabolic activity and membrane integrity were 20 mM and 23 mM, respectively. Experiments were designed to study the mixtures of metals and PAHs on viability, ROS production, and LH-stimulated progesterone production in CL cells. Mixtures of each metal with either PHEQ or 1,2-dhATQ were incubated with CL cells and their effect on metabolic activity and membrane integrity assessed. Generally, most metal/oxyPAH mixtures displayed only additive toxicity. However, mixtures of Cu2+ and PHEQ showed synergistic toxicity to both metabolic activity and membrane integrity. Mixture studies in JEG-3 cells used only combinations of Cu2+ or Hg2+ with PHEQ or 1,2-dhATQ. Similar results to metabolic activity and membrane integrity in CL cells were observed. Mixtures of Cu2+ and PHEQ or 1,2-dhATQ were tested in CL cells for their effect on LH-stimulated progesterone secretion and ROS production. Additive effects were observed in both LH-stimulated progesterone secretion and ROS production for Cu2+/1,2-dhATQ mixtures while synergistic effects for both parameters were seen with Cu2+/PHEQ. Efforts to determine the site of action for mixtures of Cu2+/PHEQ involved adding the cholesterol analogue, 22-OH cholesterol (22-OHC) to CL cells in the absence of LH. Cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage (CYP450scc) enzyme operates constitutively and the addition of 22-OHC to CL cells resulting in a 5-fold increase in progesterone production without added LH. Kinetic assays with 22-OHC show that while progesterone secretion was inhibited with PHEQ addition alone, a further significant reduction with both Cu2+ and PHEQ was not observed. The use of forskolin, an activator of adenylate cyclase, did not show any significant enhancement of progesterone secretion with the addition of Cu2+/PHEQ compared to PHEQ alone. The potential targets of Cu2+/PHEQ mixture include any step in the steroidogenic cascade from activation of protein kinase A onward with the proteins of the mitochondria, cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme and steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, being the most likely. Differential display polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) was a molecular approach taken to determine the effect of PHEQ on JEG-3 gene expression. The genes whose expression appeared to be up-regulated with PHEQ exposure were serine protease inhibitor, Alu repeat sequence, heterogeneous ribonuclear ribonucleoprotein C (hnRNP C), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 (eIF3), nucleoporin-like protein, eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1a1 (eEF1 a 1), autophagy-linked FYVE domain (Alfy), spectrin, and proteasome. Apparent down-regulated genes in JEG-3 cells after PHEQ exposure included poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 10 (PARP10), polyglutamine binding protein-1 (PQBP-1), heterogeneous ribonuclear ribonucleoprotein C (hnRNP C), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A), and keratin. In both cell types, oxyPAHs were more toxic than their parent compounds. Metals showed greater toxicity to metabolic activity than to membrane integrity. Of the combinations tested, only PHEQ and Cu2+ exhibited synergistic toxicity. ROS generation was the likely mechanism behind PHEQ/Cu2+ toxicity. Both cell types used represent critical roles in human reproductive health. The proper production of progesterone, a critical hormone for the maintenance of pregnancy in mammals, represents a unique endpoint for the assessment of toxicity. These results illustrate the need to study modified oxyPAHs, metals and metal/oxyPAH mixtures for their potential impact on human reproductive health.

Apesar da grande melhora nos resultados de desenvolvimento embrionário in vitro, cerca de 40% dos oócitos bovinos fecundados não completam o desenvolvimento na fase de pré-implantação. Diversos fatores estão relacionados a este fenômeno, conhecido como bloqueio do desenvolvimento embrionário. Partindo da premissa que o bloqueio no desenvolvimento ocorre normalmente, durante a ativação do genoma embrionário, aproximadamente, no 4º ciclo celular em bovinos, formulou-se a hipótese de que os genes transcritos no momento da ativação do genoma embrionário estão relacionados ao bloqueio. Nesta tese, um sistema fluorescente de Differential Display PCR (DDPCR) foi desenvolvido para isolar e identificar fragmentos de mRNAs expressos diferencialmente entre embriões que se desenvolvem mais rápido e com melhor taxa de desenvolvimento e aqueles que apresentam desenvolvimento mais lento e com maior taxa de bloqueio. Dentre 176 fragmentos recuperados, 27 foram clonados, seqüenciados e 30 genes identificados. Dois genes, PI3K e ITM2B foram quantificados pela PCR em tempo real. Os resultados sugerem que duas diferentes ativações do genoma podem estar ocorrendo: o grupo de desenvolvimento rápido ativa genes ligados ao desenvolvimento embrionário e, o grupo lento ativa os genes ligados à sobrevivência ou morte celular. / The embryonic developmental block occurs at the 8-cell stage in bovine and is characterized for a lengthening of the cell cycle. At the same stage, also takes place the maternal-embryonic transition (i.e. the activation of the embryonic genome). These events are highly correlated and many genes are activated at the 4th cell cycle however, their functions are mostly unknown. The study of gene expression during this stage will help understand the mechanisms involved in the maternal-embryonic transition and ultimately lead to improvements of in vitro embryo production rates. The aim of this study was to identify genes differentially expressed between bovine embryos with or without developmental competence to reach the blastocyst stage, using Differential Display PCR methodology. Embryos with fast cleavage divisions showing 8 cells at 48 hpi and high potential of development (R8), and embryos with slow cleavage divisions showing 4 cells at 48hpi (L4) and 8 cells at 80 hpi (L8), both with reduced rates of development to blastocyst, were analyzed. We developed an alternative protocol for amplification and recovery of differentially expressed genes from extremely small initial amounts of RNA (10 to 25 pg of mRNA) from preimplantation bovine embryos without need of radio-isotopes. A total of 176 differentially expressed bands were recovered, 27 isolated-fragments were cloned and sequenced confirming the expected primer sequences and allowing the recognition identification of 30 gene transcripts related to bovine embryonic physiology. Two genes, PI3K and ITM2B were chosen for relative quantification of mRNA using Real-Time PCR. Results suggest two different embryonic genome activation mechanisms: fast-developing embryos activate genes related to embryonic development, and slow-developing embryos activate genes related to cellular survival and/or death.