Previous modeling of wood materials has included many assumptions of unknown mechanical properties associated with the hierarchical structure of wood. The experimental validation of previous models did not account for the variation of mechanical properties present in wood materials. Little research has explored the uncertainties of mechanical properties in earlywood and latewood samples as well as wood strands. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of the intra-ring properties and grain angles on the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of different orientation wood strands and to analyze the sensitivity of the MOE and UTS of wood strands with respect to these variables. Tension testing incorporating digital image correlation (DIC) was employed to measure the MOE and UTS of earlywood and latewood bands sampled from growth ring numbers 1-10 and growth ring numbers 11-20. A similar technique adjusted for strand size testing was also applied to measure the MOE and UTS of different orientation wood strands from the two growth ring numbers. The stochastic finite element method (SFEM) was used with the results from the earlywood and latewood testing as inputs to model the mechanical property variation of loblolly pine wood strands. A sensitivity analysis of the input parameters in the SFEM model was performed to identify the most important parameters related to mechanical response. Modulus of elasticity (MOE), Poisson ratio, and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) from earlywood and latewood generally increased as the growth ring number increased except for the UTS of latewood, which showed a slight decrease. MOE and UTS from radial, tangential, and angled grain orientation strands increased as the growth ring numbers increased while MOE and UTS from cross-grain strands decreased as the growth ring number increased. Shear modulus of wood strands increased as the growth ring number increased while shear strength decreased as the growth ring number increased. Poisson ratio from radial and angled grain strands decreased as the growth ring number increased while Poisson ratio from tangential and cross grain orientation strands increased as the growth ring number increased. The difference of average MOE from different grain strands between experimental results and SFEM results ranged from 0.96% to 22.31%. The cumulative probability distribution curves from experimental tests and SFEM results agreed well except for the radial grain models from growth ring numbers 11-20. From sensitivity analysis, earlywood MOE was the most important contributing factor to the predicted MOE from different grain orientation strand models. From the sensitivity analysis, earlywood and latewood participated differently in the computation of MOE of different grain orientation strand models. The predicted MOE was highly associated with the strain distribution caused by different orientation strands and interaction of earlywood and latewood properties. In general, earlywood MOE had a greater effect on the predicted MOE of wood strands than other SFEM input parameters. The difference in UTS between experimental and SFEM results ranged from 0.09% to 11.09%. Sensitivity analysis showed that grain orientation and growth ring number influenced the UTS of strands. UTS of strands from growth ring numbers 1-10 showed strength indexes (Xt, Yt, and S) to be the dominant factors while UTS of strands from growth ring numbers 11-20 showed both strength indexes and stress components (Ï 1, Ï 2, and Ï 12) to be the dominant factors. Grain orientations of strands were a strong indicator of mechanical properties of wood strands. / Ph. D.

<p>In the last two decades, there has been significant improvements in pile design methods. These methods include variables that have been studied using laboratory and full-scale experiments. Refined understanding of the underlying mechanisms controlling pile response to loading enables introduction of variables in the design equations that reflect observations made in high-quality experimental data.</p><p>The mechanisms involved in the mobilization of the pile resistance (both base and shaft resistance) are studied in this thesis using a large-scale model pile testing facility consisting of a half-cylindrical calibration chamber with image analysis capabilities, instrumented model piles, and data and digital image acquisition systems. The thesis focuses on the effect of the pile surface roughness on the mobilization of tensile shaft resistance, the effect of the pile base geometry on the mobilization of base resistance, the analysis of possible mechanisms responsible for time-dependent increases in pile axial capacity, and particle crushing produced by pile installation. </p><p>A set of model pile tests were performed to study the effects of three different surface roughnesses on the shaft resistance of model piles jacked in the half-cylindrical calibration chamber. Digital images of the model piles and surrounding sand captured during tensile static loading were analyzed using the digital image correlation (DIC) technique. The base and shaft resistance measured for the instrumented model piles and the displacement and strain fields obtained with the DIC technique show that an increase in the roughness of the pile shaft results in an increase in the average unit shaft resistance and in the displacements and strains in the sand next to the shaft of the pile. Guidance is provided for consideration of pile shaft surface roughness in the calculation of the tensile limit unit shaft resistance of jacked piles in sand.</p><p>Base geometry effects were studied using jacked and pre-installed model piles with flat and conical bases tested in the DIC calibration chamber. The results show that the mobilized base resistance of a model pile with a conical tip was less than that of an equal pile with a flat base, all other things being equal, by a factor ranging from 0.64 to 0.84. The displacement and strain fields obtained with DIC also show that the slip pattern below the pile with a conical base differs from that of a pile with a flat base. </p><p>Finally, the degree of crushing of silica sand particles below the base of model piles jacked in sand samples is studied. The particle size distribution curves are obtained before and after pile installation. Relationships between the load mobilized at the base of the model piles and two well-known breakage parameters are proposed. This work also provides detailed measurements of the trajectories followed by crushed and uncrushed particles during pile installation, and characterizes the typical particle crushing modes produced by piles jacked in silica sand.</p><div><br></div>

Stamping dies are used in the Sheet Metal Forming (SMF) process for manufacturing of car body parts. The lead time for design and manufacturing of a stamping die is long, and therefore costly. In the final step of the manufacturing process, manual rework is performed to reach a desired pressure distribution on the forming surfaces in order to achieve a robust process and an approved part within tolerance. The main purpose for this work is to study and further develop a Virtual Rework Method that alters the shape of the forming surfaces of a die to compensate for the displacements of a stamping press that occur during stamping. Measurements were performed to obtain the displacements that occur in the stamping press during stamping. These measurements were performed on a double action deep drawing press of the brand Danly, located at Volvo Cars Tool &amp; Die department in Olofström, Sweden. The measurement yields information of how the stamping press is deflecting and deforming during operation. The measurements are recorded with a Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system that records the displacements of the press during stamping. The displacements obtained in the measurements are then used as constraints to inverse FE- model a press table with topology optimization. This optimized press table is used in the Virtual Rework Method to be able to simulate both the deformations of the press and the internal deformations that occur in the die. Pre-simulations were performed before the measurements to ensure that the blank holder plate used in the measurements would withstand the applied blank holder force. These simulations also yield if the displacements were large enough for the ARAMIS DIC system to capture. The FE-model used in this work consisted of a die, blank holder, blank holder plate, outer ram and the optimized press table. The Virtual Rework Method was applied on the FE-model, where the result concludes that the altered shape of the deformed forming surfaces is almost identical to the shape of the nominal forming surfaces. However, an inversed modelled structure that represents the behavior of the outer ram is required to apply the Virtual Rework Method on the blank holder. This inversed modelled structure could be created from the displacements obtained in the measurements. To apply the Virtual Rework method on the punch, further measurements are required, where the position of the ARAMIS DIC system is altered, or an additional ARAMIS DIC system is used. / Pressverktyg används i plåtformningsprocessen vid tillverkning av karossdelar. Ledtiden för konstruktion och tillverkning av ett pressverktyg är lång och därför kostsam. I det sista steget i tillverkningsprocessen utförs manuell bearbetning för att nå en önskad tryckfördelning på formningsytorna, vilket ger en robust process och en godkänd del inom toleranserna. Huvudsyftet med detta arbetet är att studera och vidareutveckla en virtuell fläckningsmetod som korrigerar formningsytorna på dynan för att kompensera för de förskjutningar som uppstår i en stämplingspress under stämpling. Mätningar har utfördes för att erhålla förskjutning som uppstår i en stämplingspress under stämpling. Dessa mätningar utfördes på en dubbelverkande djupdragningspress av märket Danly, som finns hos Volvo Cars Tool &amp; Die avdelning i Olofström, Sverige. Mätningen gav information om hur pressen deformeras under stämpling. Mätningarna registreras med ett Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system som registrerar pressens förskjutningar under stämpling. Förskjutningarna som erhållits i mätningarna användes sedan som randvillkor för en inversmodell för topologioptimering av ett pressbord. Detta optimerade pressbord används sedan i den Virtuella fläckningsmetoden för att kunna simulera både pressens stelkroppsrörelse och de interna deformationer som uppstår i pressverktyget. En förstudie utfördes innan mätningarna för att säkerställa att den plåthållarplattan som användes i mätningarna skulle motstå den applicerade plåthållarkraften. Denna förstudie gjordes även för att säkerhetsställa att förskjutningarna som uppstår i plåthållarplattan var stora nog för att ARAMIS DIC systemet skulle registrera dem. FE-modellerna som användes i detta arbete bestod av en dyna, plåthållare, plåthållarplatta, yttre slid och det optimerade pressbordet. Den Virtuella fläckningsmetoden applicerades på FE- modellen, där resultatet gav slutsatsen att den korrigerade formningsytan med applicerad belastning är nästintill identisk med formen på den nominella formningsytan. En inversmodellerad struktur som representerar beteendet hos den yttre sliden krävs emellertid för att tillämpa den Virtuella fläckningsmetoden på plåthållaren. Denna inversmodellerade struktur kunde erhållas från de förskjutning som erhölls i mätningarna. För att tillämpa den Virtuella fläckningsmetoden på stansen krävs ytterligare mätningar, där ARAMIS DIC systemets position ändras eller ett ytterligare ARAMIS DIC system används. / Reduced Lead Time through Advanced Die Structure Analysis - Vinnova

Further understanding of mesoscale slip mechanics is crucial to future development of polycrystalline metals with improved performance. The research contained within this thesis aims to characterize localized mesoscale slip on slip bands further through two studies. First, a comprehensive comparison of slip system identification techniques was carried out to further validate each method as well as compare advantages and disadvantages of each. Second, slip bands in the presence of grain boundaries were studied to better characterize the dislocation content and behavior. In the first study, the use of SEM-DIC, AFM, ECCI, and HR-EBSD to characterize slip-system activity was assessed on the same material volume of Ti-7Al. This study presents a robust comparison of the various methods for the first time, including an assessment of their advantages and disadvantages, and how they can be used effectively in a complementary manner. The analysis of the different approaches was carried out in a blind manner independently at three different universities. A Ti-7Al specimen was deformed in uniaxial tension to approximately 3% axial strain, and the active slip systems were independently identified using (i) trace analysis; (ii) in-SEM digital image correlation, (iii) observations of residual dislocations from ECCI, and (iv) long-range rotation gradients through HR-EBSD, with consistent trace identification in all cases. Displacement data from AFM was used to augment the SEM-DIC displacement data by providing complementary out of plane displacement information. Furthermore, short-range dislocation gradients (measured by DIC) provided insight into the residual geometrically necessary dislocation (GND) content, and was consistent with the GND content extracted from EBSD data and ECCI images, confirming the presence of residual GNDs on the dominant slip systems resulting in visible slip bands. These approaches can be used in tandem to provide multi-modal information on slip band identification, strain and orientation gradients, out-of-plane displacements, and the presence of GNDs and SSDs, all of which can be used to inform and validate the development of dislocation-based crystal plasticity and strain gradient models. In the second study, shear strain profiles along slip bands in a modified Rolls-Royce nickel superalloy (RR1000) were analyzed for a tensile sample deformed by 2%. The strain increased with distance away from a grain boundary (GB), with maximum shear strain towards the center of the grain, indicating that dislocation nucleation generally occurred in the grain interior. The strain gradients in the neighborhood of the GBs were quantified and generally correlated with rotation about the active slip system line direction. This leads to an ability to determine the active slip system in these regions. The dislocation spacing and pileup stresses were inferred. The dislocation spacing closely follows an Eshelby analytical solution for a single ended pileup of dislocations under an applied stress. The distribution of pileup stress values for GBs of a given misorientation angle follows a log-normal distribution, with no correlation between the pileup stress and the GB misorientation angle. Furthermore, there is no observed correlation between various transmissivity factors and slip band pileup stress. Hence it appears that the obstacle strength of any of the observed GBs is adequate to facilitate the dislocation pileups present in the slip bands. However, slip band transmission does correlate with transmissivity factors, with the current study focusing on the Luster and Morris m'-factor. Observation of strain profiles of transmitted bands indicate dislocation nucleation locations.

<p>Shallow foundations are used to support small-to-medium size structures, and their capacity derives from the strength of strong, near-surface soils. The design of shallow foundations is done by proportioning the plan dimensions of the foundation element by considering three factors: (1) the structural stability of the foundation, (2)  the allowable bearing pressure of the soil supporting the foundation to prevent ultimate bearing capacity failure, and (3) the tolerable total and differential settlements to meet serviceability requirements under normal working loads. Different theories have been developed to estimate the bearing capacity of a foundation, mostly relying on the Terzaghi (1943) form of the bearing capacity equation with the superposition of three terms. The partly theoretical and empirical methods of bearing capacity predictions rely on an assumed failure mechanism within the soil. In addition, the soil itself is considered to be a perfectly plastic material and its strength is accounted for through non-dimensional bearing capacity factors. However, the boundary-value problem of footing penetration, in reality, is quite complex and the use of the traditional bearing capacity, with use of the principle of superposition, leads to somewhat conservative results. The challenges involved in a footing penetration problem emanate not only from the difficulties in estimating soil strength parameters but also because the footing penetration problem involves large deformations and strains, which localize to form shear bands that propagate in the soil domain until the "collapse" of the sand-footing system.</p> <p>The overarching aim of this research is the study of the response of shallow foundations on clean silica sands by investigating the measured bearing capacities and getting insights into the failure mechanisms that develop as a result of the soil displacements below the base of the foundation element. This was experimentally achieved using a combination of physical modelling (by performing a series of model footing 1g load tests inside a novel half-circular calibration chamber) and image analysis (using digital image correlation technique). The load-settlement response of the model footings is investigated by performing displacement-controlled load tests on model strip and square footings placed either on the surface or embedded in the sand samples of varying relative densities prepared inside the calibration chamber using the method of air-pluviation. A series of high-resolution images collected during model footing loading were analyzed using the digital image correlation (DIC) technique to obtain the displacement and strain fields in the sand domain. Two fully characterized silica sands, Ohio Gold Frac (OGF) and Ottawa 20-30 (OTC) are used in the research. Different testing variables that were considered in the experimental setup are: (1) sand particle morphology, (2) sand sample's relative density, (3) sand layer thickness, and (4) footing shape, size, and embedment depth. A detailed test matrix was formulated to isolate these variables and study the effects of each on both the bearing capacity and the associated failure mechanism. Accordingly, this article-based dissertation is organized to describe the results of three studies.</p> <p>In the first study, the effects of relative density and particle morphology on the bearing capacity and failure mechanism of a model strip footing were investigated. This was done by using two silica sands: OGF sand and OTC sand, both the sands have comparable mineralogy, gradation, and particle sphericity; however, they have markedly different values of particle roundness. Samples of both sands were prepared at relative densities of 90%, 65%, and 30%. The evolution of the footing's collapse mechanism was considered by selecting relevant points on the load-settlement curves. A novel methodology was adapted to record the thickness of the shear band that developed in the sand domain. In the second study, the effects of the presence of a stiff layer below the strip footing were investigated. This was achieved by load testing the model strip footing on OTC sand layer of limited thickness. To simulate the sand-bedrock system, a half-circular steel plate supported by a stack of hollow concrete blocks was used. Load tests on model strip footing were performed on OTC sand samples without the presence of a stiff base and on the sand samples underlain by a stiff base located at depths equal to 0.5B and 1B below the base of the footing. The effect of the presence of the stiff base on the limit unit bearing capacity of the footing and stiffness of the sand-footing system were investigated. In addition, the contours of the cumulative maximum shear strains, horizontal displacements, and vertical displacements that develop in the sand layer are presented for both cases of with and without the presence of the stiff base. In the third study, the effects of footing geometry and embedment on the bearing capacity and failure mechanism were investigated. Load tests were performed on surface and embedded model strip and square footings on dense, medium dense, and loose OTC sand samples. The effects of choice of flow rule (associative versus non-associative) on the bearing capacity calculation and the increase in bearing capacity due to footing embedment (bearing capacity ratio) were determined. In addition, a framework is proposed to experimentally determine the shape and depth factors using strip and square footings of equal widths considering the flow rule non-associativity, conditions of low confinement, and different loading paths.</p> <p>The results of the experimental program presented in this research on bearing capacity, displacement fields, strain fields, and failure mechanisms for different footing sizes and shapes under different testing conditions show that that the footing's collapse mechanism depends on the relative density of the sand sample, sand particle morphology, and the footing geometry. Significant differences in the bearing capacity of model footings due to sand particle morphology and sand sample density were observed. The shear band thickness is also shown to be dependent on the shape of the sand particles. It was also observed that the scale effects in model footing tests are closely related to sand dilatancy. For a sand layer of finite thickness underlain by a stiff base it is shown that the critical depth of the stiff base is greater for stiffness calculation than that for the bearing capacity calculation. DIC analysis results provided valuable insights to the footing penetration problem and corroborated the theoretical knowledge about the failure modes in sandy soils. It is shown that the failure mechanism extend deeper and wider for sands with angular particles as compared to the sand with rounded particles. DIC analysis also revealed that as the distance between the footing base and stiff layer reduces, the shear bands are more readily formed but their lateral extents are reduced considerably. The high-quality experimental data provided in this dissertation is aimed to be useful to researchers working on the validation of numerical simulations of footing penetration in sands.</p>

No description available.

Three dimensional (3D) woven composites have attracted the interest of academia and industry thanks to their damage tolerance characteristics and automated fabric manufacturing. Although much research has been conducted to investigate their out-of-plane "through thickness" properties, still their in-plane properties are not fully understood and rely on extensive experimentation. The aim of this work is to study the electromechanical behaviour of three different fibre architectures of 3D woven composites "orthogonal (ORT), layer-to-layer (LTL) and angle interlock (AI)" loaded, in three different orientations "warp (0º), weft (90º) and off-axis (45º)", in quasi-static tension. Stress/strain response is captured as well as damage initiation and evolution up to final failure. The ORT architecture demonstrated a superior behaviour, in the off-axis direction, demonstrated by high strain to failure (~23%) and high translaminar energy absorption (~40 MJ/m3). The z-binder yarns in ORT suppress delamination and allow larger fibre rotation during the fibre "scissoring motion" that enables further strain to be sustained. In-situ electrical resistance variation is monitored using a four-probe technique to correlate the resistance variation with the level of damage induced while loading. Monotonic and cyclic "load/unload" tests are performed to investigate the effect of piezo-resistivity and residual plasticity on resistance variation while damage is captured by X-ray scanning during interrupted tests at predefined load levels. In addition, this study investigates the potential of using 3D woven composites in joint assemblies through open-hole tension and "single fastener double-lap joint" bearing strength tests. 3D woven composites in the off-axis orientation, especially ORT, demonstrate a potential for overcoming some of the major challenges for composite joints' applications which are the pseudo-ductility, stress redistribution away from the notch and notch insensitivity. Finally, the study proposes a micro-mechanics based damage model to simulate the response of 3D orthogonal woven composites loaded in tension. The proposed model differs from classical damage mechanics approaches in which the evolution law is obtained by retrofitting global experimental observations.

Com os crescentes movimentos ecolÃgicos em todo o mundo, onde o objetivo principal visa conscientizar e estimular a populaÃÃo mundial a poupar os recursos naturais, aliado a necessidade de se desviar os resÃduos aterrados (sanitÃrios ou industriais), de forma a reduzir os problemas ambientais e de saÃde pÃblica, decorrentes da disposiÃÃo inadequada de resÃduos sÃlidos, surgem os incentivos a reciclagem de materiais, bem como o desenvolvimento de materiais biodegradÃveis. Diante deste contexto, os materiais compÃsitos reforÃados com fibras naturais ganham destaque no meio cientÃfico. No entanto, seu uso ainda à tido com desconfianÃa, devido ao pouco ou nenhum conhecimento desses promissores materiais. Perante essa problemÃtica, surgiu a proposta deste trabalho de carÃter investigativo, em que foi pesquisado e desenvolvido um compÃsito totalmente reciclado, de matriz termoplÃstica (PVC reciclado) reforÃado, com fibras obtidas da casca de cocos verdes descartados. Para esse objetivo foram utilizadas diversas ferramentas de caracterizaÃÃo fÃsica, quÃmica, tÃrmica e mecÃnica, sendo os valores dos campos de deformaÃÃo obtidos pela CorrelaÃÃo de Imagem Digital (CID), comparando a imagem do corpo nÃo deformado com imagens do corpo deformado. E finalmente, avaliou-se os processos de danificaÃÃo do compÃsito, atravÃs da caracterizaÃÃo experimental da evoluÃÃo do dano isotrÃpico pelos mÃtodosda variaÃÃo do MÃdulo de Elasticidade efetivo (ensaio de traÃÃo com carga e descarga) e pelo Ãndice de Tsai-Wu com os parÃmetros constitutivos da funÃÃo tangente hiperbÃlica, onde os valores encontrados, em ambos os mÃtodos, mantiveram-se dentro da faixa esperada para compÃsitos, 0,20 â 0,50. / With increasing the ecological movements around the world, whose the main objective aims to raise awareness and encourage the world's population to save natural resources, coupled with the need to divert grounded waste (sanitary or industrial) in order to reduce environmental problems and public health, arising f rom the improper disposal of solid waste, emerge incentives for recy cling, and the development of biodegradable materials. Given this context, the composites reinforced with natural fibers began to be highlighted in the scientific community. However, its utilization is still seen with suspicion due to little or no knowledge of these pr omising materials. Faced with this problem, arose the proposal of this investigative character work, in with it was researched and devel oped a fully recycled composite, of thermoplastic matrix (recycl ed PVC) reinforced with fibers obtained from the bark of green coconut s discarded. For this objective were used various tools of physical, chemical, thermal and mechanical characterization, whose amounts of d eformation fields were obtained by Digital Image Correlation (DIC), c omparing the image of the body not deformed with images of the deforme d body. Finally, we assessed the processes of damage of the composite, through experimental characterization of the evolution of t he isotropic damage by the methods of varying the effective elastic mod ulus (tensile test with loading and unloading) and by Tsai-Wu index wi th the parameters constitutive of hyperbolic tangent function, where the values found, in both methods, were within the expected range for composite, from 0.20 to 0.50.

Les matériaux composites 3D obtenus par couture ou piquage transverses présentent de nombreux atouts comparativement aux tissages interlocks ou orthogonaux 3D. Dans le but d’évaluer le potentiel de cette nouvelle génération de matériaux 3D, certaines études ont été consacrées à leur caractérisation mécanique. D’autres études se sont focalisées sur l’influence de certains types de coutures sur la perméabilité de matériaux cousus de type NCF (Non Crimp Fabrics). Cette thèse se propose d’étudier l’apport des coutures de type Tufting dans le renforcement transverse de tissus classiques 2D. Cet apport est évalué, conjointement, du point de vue mécanique et du point de vue de la perméabilité. Parmi les nombreux paramètres de couture, l’étude s’est focalisée sur l’influence de la densité de couture. A ce titre, trois différentes densités de coutures ont été réalisées, grâce à un robot de couture disponible au sein de notre laboratoire. Du point de vue de la perméabilité, les préformes cousues ont été réalisées avec des empilements identiques à ceux des préformes non cousues. L’évaluation des perméabilités a été conduite à travers un banc de mesure de perméabilité à flux unidirectionnel. Avec cette méthode, le tenseur de perméabilité plane est obtenu à travers trois mesures unidirectionnelles : 0° (chaine), 90° (trame) et 45°. L’analyse des résultats montre que la couture de type Tufting induit un effet atténuateur du rapport d’anisotropie K1/K2. D’autre part, il ressort que la position du fil de couture provoque des gradients de perméabilités locaux, très prononcés entre la surface et le cœur de la préforme. Pour les besoins de la caractérisation mécanique, six plaques composites ont été réalisées par le procédé RTM. Pour atteindre les caractéristiques mécaniques hors-plan, des plaques de 20 mm d’épaisseur, cousues et non cousues ont été réalisées. La CIN (Corrélation d’Image Numérique) a été utilisée pour cartographier les distributions des champs de déplacement lors des essais mécaniques (traction, compression sur cube et flexion en poutre courte), ceci afin de tenir compte de la présence des coutures au sein des matériaux. Les performances mécaniques évaluées se sont révélées bien en deçà des attentes, surtout en ce qui concerne les caractéristiques hors-plan. L’analyse micrographique des matériaux a révélé la présence de porosités concentrées au sein, ou dans le voisinage proche, des coutures. D’autre part, les coutures présentaient des courbures ou vrillages, provoquées par le compactage lors de la fermeture du moule RTM.En faisant le lien avec les résultats de perméabilité, il ressort que la présence des porosités au sein des coutures est une conséquence des gradients de perméabilité qui induisent des refermetures de flux d’imprégnation. / 3D composite materials, which obtained by stitching or tufting, have many advantages compared to the 3D orthogonal weaves or interlocks. ln order to evaluate the potential of this new generation of 3D materials, some studies have been devoted to their mechanical properties. Other studies have focused on the influence of certain types of seams on the permeability of materials such as NCF (Non Crimp Fabrics).This thesis is to study the contribution of seams through the thickness of reinforcement 2D classic fabrics. This contribution is evaluated the mechanical properties and their permeability at the same time. Among many stitching parameters, the study focused on the influence of the stitching density. Three different seams densities were carried out through a robot available in our laboratory.ln terms of permeability, the stitched preforms were laminated those of identical unstitched preforms by using Tufting.The evaluation of permeability was conducted in an unsaturated regime through a small scale bench test by the unidirectional flow. With this method, the in-plane permeability tensor is obtained through the measured permeability in three directions : 0° (warp), 90° (weft) and 45°. The results show that the type of Tufting seams reduces the effect of anisotropy ratio Kl/K2. And it is obvious that the position of the stitching thread causes local permeability gradients very pronouncedly between the heart and the surface of the preform. For the purposes of the mechanical properties, six composite plates were made by the RTM process. To achieve mechanical properties through the thickness of the plates of 20 mm thick, stitched and unstitched performed were prepared. DIC (Digital Image Correlation) was used to detect the distribution of displacement fields during mechanical testing (tensile, compression and short bearn bending) in order to take account of the presence of seams within materials. The measured mechanical performance proved below expectations, particularly with regard to the characteristics in the third direction. Micrographie analysis of materials revealed the presence of porosity concentrated within, or near the seams. Moreover, the bends or kinks of seams were caused by compaction during closure of the RTM mold. By connecting with the permeability data, it appears that the presence of porosities in the seams is a consequence ofpermeability gradients that induce impregnation flow reclosing.

This thesis presents work on investigations into the mechanical properties of connective tissue. A model system of hydrogels was used to investigate how volume change through water flow is coupled to relaxation. This was done using digital image correlation (DIC) and a custom built setup. It was found, in hydrogels, that water loss is directly coupled to an increase in tension and water intake is directly coupled to tension relaxation. The experimental setup was tested by investigating the mechanical properties of the well known material polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and the novel materials of carbon nanotube (CNT) elastomers, cholesteric liquid crystal elastomers (CLCEs), and 3D polydomain liquid crystal elastomers (3DLCEs). The setup accurately demonstrated the incompressibility of PDMS, even at short time scales, and demonstrated how DIC can map the inhomogeneity of material by locating clusters of CNTs in CNT elastomers by how they deform. Novel results for 3DLCEs were also found, where it was discovered that there is a softening of the bulk modulus at small time scales resulting in a volume increase following deformation, the bulk modulus then recovers and there is over all no volume change. This is in stark contrast to the typical case, where it is the shear modulus that becomes comparable to the bulk modulus, resulting in increased volume. A theoretical investigation was carried out into critical damping in viscoelastic oscillators, where the aim was to apply to the findings to connective tissue. The fractional Maxwell model and zener model where both solved for, where it was found that damping decreases as the material becomes more solid and the peak of critical damping becomes broader. Finally, investigations into how strain relates to the viscoelastic properties of connective tissue were carried out on horse tendon and rat fascia. How relaxation changes was determined through the relaxation constant, where a large constant means it takes the sample longer to relax and it is more solid like. It was found, that in general, the relaxation constant increases quickly with an imposed strain and then either stabilises or increases more slowly. This growth of relaxation constant also occurs during the initial stages of tissue injury, where irreversible deformation occurs.