För att vatten ska kunna levereras enligt de krav som ställs från användarna i samhället behövs ett väl anpassat ledningsnät. Det innebär bland annat att vatten ska finnas tillgängligt i den mängd som behövs och vid den tidpunkt som vatten krävs. För att vattenreningsverken ska kunna leverera rätt mängd vatten måste ledningsnätet vara dimensionerat för att kunna transportera allt vatten som skall pumpas ut till användarna. Detta kräver en god uppskattning om de vattenflöden som behövs. Det förväntade vattenflödet till olika samhällsanvändare uppskattas utifrån befintliga användningsmönster samt publikation P83, framtagen av Svenskt Vatten. Allt eftersom samhället utvecklas behöver publikationen uppdateras för att denna ska stämma så väl överens med verkligheten som möjligt. Vattenanvändningsmönster i skolor, kontor, handelsområden och industrier undersöktes som en del av ett pågående projekt för att undersöka om P83 bör uppdateras. För dessa har år- och dygnsvariationer, flöden och maxfaktorer analyserats från årslånga mätserier. Utifrån uppmätta värden kunde alternativa fördelningsnycklar som potentiellt skulle bidra till förbättring också analyseras. Resultaten tyder på att det finns förbättringsmöjligheter för flödesberäkningar för brukartyperna skolor, handel och industri jämfört med dagens metoder. För skolor och handel skulle inomhusarea vara en relevant fördelningsnyckel att använda vid beräkningar medan takyta vore en mer lämplig parameter att använda för industrier. De maxfaktorer som finns angivna i P83 stämde inte särskilt väl överens med de uppmätta i studien och skulle behöva uppdateras. Studien visar också på ett behov av att dela upp de brukarkategorier som finns i dagsläget till fler kategorier då de tre som finns i dagsläget är mycket generella. Dessutom undersöktes möjligheten att kombinera olika brukartyper för att utjämna vattenflöden under dygnet. Villor eller radhus bör lämpligen kombineras med skolor, kontor eller industrier för att få ett jämnare vattenflöde under dagtid. / For water to be delivered according to the requirements of the users in the society there is a need for the water pipelines to be well dimensioned. This means that the amount of water that is needed has to be available at the time when it is required. For the water treatment plants to be able to deliver the right amount of water the pipelines must be sized to carry the water that should be delivered to the users. This requires a good estimate of the amount of water needed. The expected water flow to different users is estimated based on existing water usage patterns as well as the P83 publication, developed by Swedish Water. As society develops the publication may need to be updated to correspond well with reality. Water use patterns in schools, offices, retail stores and industries were examined as a part of an ongoing project to investigate whether P83 should be updated. For these annual and diurnal variations, water flows and max factors were analyzed from yearlong series of measurements. Based on the measured values alternate allocation keys that could potentially contribute to improvement were analyzed. The results suggest that there are possible improvements for flow calculations for schools, retail stores and industry compared to current methods. For schools and retail stores the indoor area would be a relevant variable to use for calculations, while the roof area would be a more appropriate variable to use for industries. The max factors listed in P83 did not agree with those measured in the study and would need to be updated. The study shows that the three categories used in P83 are very general and ought to be divided into more specific categories. Furthermore, the possibility to combine different types of water users to equalize the water flow to an area during the day was analyzed. Villas or semi-attached houses should preferably be combined with schools, offices or industries for evening out the flow during day time.

科学研究費補助金 研究種目:基盤研究(B)(2) 課題番号:08458144 研究代表者:飯田 孝夫 研究期間:1996-1997年度

Ο άξονας Υποθάλαμος – Υπόφυση – Επινεφρίδια και το συμπαθητικό νευρικό σύστημα είναι τα περιφερικά σκέλη του συστήματος απάντησης στο στρες, με στόχο τη διατήρηση της ομοιόστασης του οργανισμού. Ανεπάρκεια ανταπόκρισης των επινεφριδίων στη σοβαρή νόσο μπορεί να παρουσιαστεί χωρίς προφανή βλάβη στον άξονα ΥΥΕ. Σε πολλούς ασθενείς με σοβαρή νόσο, τα επίπεδα κορτιζόλης παρά το ότι είναι αυξημένα, δεν είναι αρκετά ώστε να εκδηλώσουν επαρκή επινεφριδιακή απάντηση σε σχέση με τη σοβαρότητα της νόσου. Η βέλτιστη απάντηση του άξονα ΥΥΕ σε καταστάσεις νόσου παραμένει υπό αμφισβήτηση. Η διάγνωση της πιθανής σχετικής με τη νόσο παροδικής επινεφριδιακής ανεπάρκειας και η ανάγκη για χορήγηση κορτικοστεροειδών είναι ακόμη υπό συζήτηση. Σκοπός της μελέτης αυτής είναι η εκτίμηση της επινεφριδιακής απάντησης ανάλογα με τη σοβαρότητα της νόσου στην οξεία φάση της νόσου και η μελέτη του άξονα ΥΥΕ τόσο στην οξεία φάση, όσο και στην ανάρρωση. Για το σκοπό αυτό μελετήθηκαν 56 νοσηλευόμενοι ασθενείς με διαφορετικής βαρύτητας νόσημα (ΑΕΕ, ήπια νόσο, σήψη και σοβαρή σήψη), καθώς και 15 υγιή άτομα – μάρτυρες. Σε όλους τους συμμετέχοντες, κατά την εισαγωγή τους (1η ημέρα), μετρήθηκε η κορτιζόλη και η ACTH. Κατόπιν εφαρμόστηκε η δοκιμασία με χαμηλή δόση (1μg) κορτικοτροπίνης και δύο ώρες αργότερα η δοκιμασία με τη συνήθη δόση (250μg) κορτικοτροπίνης. Τη δεύτερη ημέρα νοσηλείας στους ασθενείς μετρήθηκε η ημερήσια διακύμανση της κορτιζόλης. Κατά την 5η -6η ημέρα νοσηλείας (φάση ανάρρωσης) έγινε επανάληψη των δοκιμασιών σε 15 ασθενείς (7 με σήψη και 8 με σοβαρή σήψη). Από την επεξεργασία των αποτελεσμάτων, στην ομάδα των ΑΕΕ και της σοβαρής σήψης παρατηρούνται οι υψηλότερες τιμές κορτιζόλης, καθώς επίσης και εξάλειψη της ημερήσιας διακύμανσης της κορτιζόλης. Παράλληλα, σε όλους τους ασθενείς παρατηρείται διαχωρισμός των επιπέδων κορτιζόλης και ACTH. Η αύξηση της κορτιζόλης (Δmax κορτιζόλης) μετά από διέγερση με 1 μg κορτικοτροπίνης δεν διέφερε μεταξύ των ομάδων νόσου, ενώ η Δmax κορτιζόλης μετά από διέγερση με 250μg κορτικοτροπίνης παρουσίασε οριακά σημαντική διαφορά με μια τάση να είναι υψηλότερη στην ομάδα των υγιών μαρτύρων. Η συχνότητα της απάντησης ή μη στη συνήθη δοκιμασία με βάση το κριτήριο Δmax κορτιζόλης <9 δεν διέφερε μεταξύ των υγιών και των ομάδων ασθενών, ενώ όλοι οι ασθενείς επιβίωσαν χωρίς τη χορήγηση κορτικοειδών, ανεξάρτητα από την απάντηση ή μη στις δοκιμασίες με ACTH. Στους ασθενείς με σήψη, η Δmax κορτιζόλης μετά από διέγερση με 250 μg κορτικοτροπίνης ήταν υψηλότερη στη φάση ανάρρωσης σε σχέση με την οξεία φάση, ενώ στους ασθενείς με σοβαρή σήψη η αντίστοιχη διαφορά δεν ανεδείχθη σε σημαντικό βαθμό. Η βασική κορτιζόλη ήταν υψηλότερη στην οξεία φάση σε σχέση με τη φάση ανάρρωσης και στις δύο ομάδες νόσου. Συμπερασματικά, διαπιστώνονται ήπιες αλλαγές στον άξονα ΥΥΕ, ανάλογα με τη σοβαρότητα του νοσήματος. Παρόλα αυτά, δεν επιβεβαιώνεται η ύπαρξη σχετικής επινεφριδιακής ανεπάρκειας σε μη βαριά νοσούντες ασθενείς. / Relative corticosteroid insufficiency maybe is common in critically ill patients, associated with poor outcome; however it is not known the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in nursed patients. Our aim was to evaluate the response of HPA axis in non-critically ill nursed (NCIN) patients. Fifty -six nursed patients, divided into four groups (stroke, mild disease, sepsis and severe sepsis) as well as a control group (n=15) were studied. At admission (day 1), cortisol and ACTH measured and a low - dose (1mug ) corticotropin test was performed, followed two hours later by a standard-dose (250 mug). Diurnal variation of cortisol was obtained on day 2. A second identical set of low and standard set of corticotropin tests were performed on day 5 or 6 (recovery phase). In patients with stroke and severe sepsis cortisol had the highest values and its diurnal variation was abolished. Dissociation of ACTH and cortisol was found in all patients. The Deltamax of cortisol after the 1 mug corticotropin test did not differ among the groups while after the 250 mug corticotropin test was borderline higher in controls. The ratio of responders (Deltamax of cortisol >/= 9 mug/dL) to non-responders after 1 mug or 250 mug corticotrophin tests did not differ among patients and controls. All patients had a good outcome without glucocorticoid treatment. In conclusion, mild alterations of the HPA axis, depending on the severity of illness occurred. However, relative corticosteroid insufficiency in non-critically ill nursed patients did not confirm.

Abstract The diurnal cycle is a dominant mode of sea surface temperature (SST) variability in trop-ical oceans, that influences air-sea interaction and climate processes. Diurnal variability of SST generally ranges from ~0.1 to 2.0◦C and is controlled by atmospheric fluxes of heat and momentum. In the present study, the response of intraseasonal variability (ISV) of SST in the Bay of Bengal (BoB) to diurnal atmospheric forcings, during the summer monsoon of 2007, has been examined using an Ocean General Circulation Model (OGCM). The model is based on the Modular Ocean Model Version 4 (MOM4p0), having a horizontal resolution of 0.25◦ and 40 vertical levels, with a fine resolution of 5 m in the upper 60 m. Numerical experiments were conducted by forcing the model with daily and hourly atmospheric forcings to examine the SST-ISV modulation with the diurnal cycle. Additional experiments were performed to determine the relative role of diurnal cycle in solar radiation and winds on SST and mixed layer depth (MLD). Since salinity, which is decisive in SST variability, varies meridionally in the BoB, two locations were selected for analyses: one in the northern bay at 89◦E, 19◦N where salinity is lower and the other in the southern bay at 90◦E, 8◦N where salinity is higher, as well as observations are available from Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) buoy for comparision with model simulation. Diurnal atmospheric forcings modify SST-ISV in both southern and northern bay. SST-ISV in the southern bay, is dominantly controlled by the diurnal cycle of insolation, while in the northern bay, diurnal cycle of insolation and winds have comparable contribution. Diurnal cycle enhanced the amplitude of 3 selected intraseasonal events in the southern bay and 3 out of the 6 events in the northern bay, during the study period. In the southern bay, simulated SST variability with hourly forcing was closer to the observations from RAMA, implying that incorporating the diurnal cycle in model forcing rectifies SST-ISV. Moreover, SST obtained with diurnal forcing consists of additional fluctuations at higher frequencies within and in between intraseasonal events; such fluctuations are absent with daily forcing. The diurnal variability of SST is significant during the warming phase of intraseasonal events and reduces during the cooling phase. Diurnal amplitude of SST decreases with depth; depth dependence also being larger during the warming phase. SST-ISV modulation with diurnal forcing results from the diurnal cycle of upper ocean heat fluxes and vertical mixing. Diurnal warming and cooling result in a net gain or loss of heat in the mixed layer after a day’s cycle. When the retention (loss) of heat in the mixed layer increases with diurnal forcing during the warming (cooling) phase of intraseasonal events, the daily mean SST rise (fall) becomes higher, amplifying the intraseasonal warming (cooling). In the southern bay, SST-ISV amplification is mainly controlled by the diurnal variability of MLD, which modifies the heat fluxes. Increased intraseasonal warming with diurnal forcing results from the increase in radiative heating, due to the shoaling of the daytime mixed layer. Amplified intraseasonal cooling is dominantly con-trolled by the strengthening of sub-surface processes, due to the nocturnal deepening of mixed layer and increased temperature gradients below the mixed layer. In the northern bay, SST-ISV modulation with diurnal forcing is not as large as that in the southern bay. The mean increase in SST-ISV amplitudes with diurnal forcing is ~0.16◦C in the southern bay, while it is only ~0.03◦C in the northern bay. Reduced response of SST-ISV to diurnal forcings in the northern bay is related to the weaker diurnal variability of MLD. Salinity stratification limits diurnal variability of mixed layer in the northern bay, unlike in the southern bay. The seasonal (June - September) mean diurnal amplitude of MLD is ~15 m in the southern bay, while it is reduced to ~1.5 m in the northern bay. Diurnal variability of MLD, spanning only a few meters is not sufficient to create large modifications in mixed layer heat fluxes and SST-ISV in the northern bay. The vertical resolution of the model limits the shallowing of mixed layer to 7.5 m, thus restricting the diurnal variability of simulated MLD.

The deteriorating air quality in Cape Town (CT) is a threat to the social and economic development of the city. Although previous studies have shown that most of the pollutants are emitted in the city, it is not clear how the transport of pollutants from neighbouring cities may contribute to the pollution. This thesis studies the transport of atmospheric nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitric acid (HNO3) pollutants over South Africa and examines the role of pollutant transport from the Mpumalanga Highveld on pollution in CT. The study analysed observation data (2001 - 2008) from the CT air quality network and from regional climate model simulation (2001 - 2004) over South Africa. The model simulations account for the influences of complex topography, atmospheric conditions, and atmospheric chemistry on transport of the pollutants over South Africa. Flux budget analysis was used to examine whether the city is a net source or sink for NOx and HNO3. The results show that north-easterly flow transports pollutants (NOx and HNO3) at low level (i.e., surface to 850 hPa) from the Mpumalanga Highveld towards CT. In April, a tongue of high concentration of HNO3 extends from the Mpumalanga Highveld to CT, along the southern coast. The flux budget analysis shows that CT can be a net sink for NOx and HNO3 during extreme pollution events. The study infers that, apart from the local emission of the pollutants in CT, the accumulation of pollutants transported from other areas may contribute to pollution in the city. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

The deteriorating air quality in Cape Town (CT) is a threat to the social and economic development of the city. Although previous studies have shown that most of the pollutants are emitted in the city, it is not clear how the transport of pollutants from neighbouring cities may contribute to the pollution. This thesis studies the transport of atmospheric nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitric acid (HNO3) pollutants over South Africa and examines the role of pollutant transport from the Mpumalanga Highveld on pollution in CT. The study analysed observation data (2001 - 2008) from the CT air quality network and from regional climate model simulation (2001 - 2004) over South Africa. The model simulations account for the influences of complex topography, atmospheric conditions, and atmospheric chemistry on transport of the pollutants over South Africa. Flux budget analysis was used to examine whether the city is a net source or sink for NOx and HNO3. The results show that north-easterly flow transports pollutants (NOx and HNO3) at low level (i.e., surface to 850 hPa) from the Mpumalanga Highveld towards CT. In April, a tongue of high concentration of HNO3 extends from the Mpumalanga Highveld to CT, along the southern coast. The flux budget analysis shows that CT can be a net sink for NOx and HNO3 during extreme pollution events. The study infers that, apart from the local emission of the pollutants in CT, the accumulation of pollutants transported from other areas may contribute to pollution in the city. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)