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In a broad way, the main intention of this study is an attempt to analyze the changes the diplomatic competition between China and Taiwan in Latin America has brought to all the involved parties. How this competition have concentrated in just a few countries serving as Taiwan last stand hold against Chinese attempts to isolate it in the international community during the last three decades. The aim is to understand the whole evolution and dynamics of this great Asian issue elucidated in Latin America, and the way both China and Taiwan have behave to attract the favor of those small Latin American countries while those Latin American countries have also came to profit from this situation. Both, China and Taiwan have an almost symbiotic relationship with Latin America, relationship to become more and more important if current geopolitical and economic conditions were to continue. One side, Both China and Taiwan demand a great amount of Latin American natural resources to fuel their global industry. On the other side, Latin America demands more and more of the finished goods produced in China and Taiwan. The main research question the author will attempt to solve here is: ¡§Why are Latin American states shifting or considering shifting to China?¡¨ complementary questions intended to shed some light on the author¡¦s original assumptions are that Chinese economic growth is not the only explanation for Latin America¡¦s support of China. These questions are as follow: ¡§Does Latin American States perceive China as a threat? Has US double standard contributed to Taiwan losing its Latin American partners? Has Taiwanese implementation of Dollar diplomacy methods in some Latin American states something to do with its losing of supporters? A throughout analysis of both, the Chinese economic and geopolitical reach as well as Latin American¡¦s own search for economic, political and ideological independence from US are the main explanatory for the changes observed in this triangular relationship. Nevertheless, a series of unorthodox foreign policy methods such as ¡¥Dollar Diplomacy¡¦ conditioned foreign aid, have also contributed to these changes.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, 2004. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

D.Com. (Economics) / The objective of the study was mainly to examine the effect of the U.S. dollar on the competitive advantage of South Africa.The theoretical framework explaining the competitive position of a country in the global market place was examined in Chapter II. The complexity of the variables involved is evident from the many different points of view put forward by economists, not only in respect of the. concept competitive advantage of a country, but also in respect of the criteria that should be used to evaluate such competitiveness. It is, however, evident that the phenomena involved in evaluating the competitive position of a country cannot be separated from the theories explaining the flow of goods and services between countries. Only a minor part of such flows can be explained in terms of the traditional international trade theories. Most of the trade over borders occurs between countries differing very little from each other as far as tastes and factor ...

Dollar spot, caused by the pathogen S. homoeocarpa (F.T. Bennett), is a common disease that infects a wide variety of turfgrasses all over the world. Yet it is significant problem on golf course putting greens and fairways consisting of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) and annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.). It is active in a wide variety of environmental conditions ranging from 16-30˚C but favors warm, humid days, followed by cool nights. Sclerotinia homoeocarpa overwinters as dormant mycelium in dead plant tissue. In the spring, germinating mycelia begin to infect leaf blades causing foliar lesions, which then spread via mycelium by means of wind, rain, animals and equipment. While there are a number of cultural practices that can reduce disease severity, frequent fungicide applications are required to maintain acceptable playing conditions on a golf course. The repeated use of fungicides with the same mode of action has led to the development of fungicide resistance of S. homoeocarpa to certain fungicide classes. Most notably, demethylase inhibitor (DMI) fungicides have been found to have varying levels of inefficacy against S. homoeocarpa across North America. The cause for reduced efficacy is suspected to the shifted sensitivity levels of many S. homoeocarpa populations, which are resulted from repeated use of the DMI fungicide. Recently, “early-spring fungicide applications” targeting to reduce initial inoculum density of dollar spot have gained popularity in an attempt to reduce dollar spot severity. In addition, preventative fungicide applications (from late October through mid-November) containing DMI fungicides have been traditionally practiced to target snow molds (caused by Microdochium nivale, Typhula spp.) in the northeastern United States. To date, there is not a clear understanding as to what effect, if any, these applications have on S. homoeocarpa DMI sensitivity or residual dollar spot control the following year. Traditional preventative snow mold applications were also investigated on the effect of S. homoeocarpa DMI sensitivity and early-season dollar spot control. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of early-spring dollar spot application and late-fall snow mold application on S. homoeocarpa population with a bimodal distribution of DMI sensitive and insensitive isolates.

Dollar spot is one of the most common diseases of warm- and cool-season turfgrass stands and is especially devastating on creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.). The fungus Sclerotinia homoeocarpa degrades the foliage by creating silver, dollar-sized depressions of dead and bleached turf. Frequent fungicide applications and cultural management strategies are required throughout the growing season to prevent or reduce severity of this disease. Previous research has demonstrated that ferrous sulfate applied at 48.8 kg ha-1 suppresses dollar spot epidemics without traditional fungicides. In vitro studies showed 100 to 1,000 mg kg-1 of ferrous sulfate directly suppressed S. homoeocarpa growth of an isolate collected from an established, intensively-maintained creeping bentgrass putting green. Genetic diversity of S. homoeocarpa segregates isolates into two groups; strains generally associated with warm-season and cool-season grasses. It is unknown whether isolates of each group react similarly in the presence of ferrous sulfate. Our research explored use rates of ferrous sulfate required to suppress 50% of dollar spot in the field and in vitro. Ferrous sulfate (heptahydrate 20% Fe, Valudor Products Inc) rates in field trials included 0, 4.88, 24.4, 48.8, and 97.6 kg ha-1. Our results indicate a hyperbolic relationship between ferrous sulfate rate and dollar spot reduction. Using this model, 26.4 kg ha-1 reduced dollar spot incidence by 50%. We concluded that ferrous sulfate suppresses 50% of S. homoeocarpa mycelial growth at between 480 and 720 mg L-1 concentration in 0.25 strength potato dextrose agar in vitro, and fungitoxic activity of ferrous sulfate was dependent primarily on historical fungicide inputs at isolate collection sites. The use of ferrous sulfate may supplement traditional fungicide use. Chlorothalonil is the most common fungicide used to suppress dollar spot in turfgrass. Annual site-use limitations of chlorothalonil often prevent turf managers from achieving acceptable dollar spot control throughout the season. It is not known how ferrous sulfate may contribute to a successful chlorothalonil fungicide program. Therefore, we examined whether ferrous sulfate can be used to minimize chlorothalonil requirements through reducing active ingredient concentrations and extending the longevity, while still maintaining acceptable disease control. Chlorothalonil treatments were applied at 0, 2.28, 4.57, 6.86, and 9.16 kg ai ha-1 (Daconil WeatherStik) across plots treated with and without 48.8 kg ha-1 ferrous sulfate applied bi-weekly. Ferrous sulfate reduced the chlorothalonil rates necessary for 80% disease reduction by 36 to 51% across all trials. Additional studies showed that ferrous sulfate applied with chlorothalonil increased duration of disease control by five days and eliminated two seasonal treatments. Our research expands the guidelines for practical ferrous sulfate usage for dollar spot suppression by elucidating the rate-to-disease relationship and providing best management practices involving admixtures with chlorothalonil. / Master of Science / Turfgrass systems offer many environmental and recreational benefits. Managing turfgrass stands that are free of damaging turf pests is essential to providing aesthetically pleasing lawns, golf courses, and sports fields. Creeping bentgrass is one of the most common turfgrass types found on golf course putting greens but is also used on golf course fairways and tee boxes. There are many diseases that can be found on creeping bentgrass when environmental conditions are favorable. Of these diseases, dollar spot is the most common. When dollar spot is present, half-dollar sized spots of bleached turf can be seen. In order to prevent these easily noticeable spots from appearing, fungicide applications are required in a given growing season to prevent the pathogen from infecting. Available fungicides are very effective at providing control but can be very costly. Beyond fungicide use, other research has shown various cultural practices to reduce disease incidence. Previous research has shown that iron sulfate applied to creeping bentgrass can reduce dollar spot epidemics without the use of fungicides. Laboratory studies have shown a similar trend as ferrous sulfate at varying concentrations directly suppressed dollar spot pathogen growth. In both cases, a limited range of ferrous sulfate rates was tested. To obtain more information we explored use rates of ferrous sulfate required to suppress 50% of dollar spot in the field and in vitro. Ferrous sulfate rates in field trials ranged from 0 to 97.6 kg ha⁻¹ . Results from these trials were used to create a hyperbolic regression. Using this model, we were then able to determine that 26.4 kg ha⁻¹ iron sulfate was required to suppress 50% of the dollar spot in the field. For the laboratory studies we concluded that ferrous sulfate suppresses 50% of the dollar spot pathogen mycelial growth between 480 and 720 mg L ⁻¹ iron sulfate concentrated potato dextrose agar. Although there are many different fungicides available for dollar spot control, the active ingredient chlorothalonil is the most common used. Due to the mode of action which chlorothalonil exhibits, it is much less likely that the pathogen causing dollar spot can become resistant. Although resistance is not an issue, governmental annual site-use limitations restrict turf managers from achieving desirable control. The use of iron sulfate in conjunction with chlorothalonil has not been previously studied. Chlorothalonil treatments were applied at a range of labeled use rates across plots treated with and without 48.8 kg ha⁻¹ ferrous sulfate applied bi-weekly. Ferrous sulfate reduced the chlorothalonil rates necessary for disease reduction. If a threshold of 80% is used, up to 50% reduction in chlorothalonil use was observed. Supplemental studies investigating the duration of control achieved by the combination showed an increase of up to 5 days and eliminated the need for two applications across one season. This research fills a huge gap in our knowledge base on the practical use of iron sulfate for dollar spot control.

ABSTRACT Dollar spot is a fungal disease that affects grass, and is caused by the fungus Sclerotinia homoeocarpa. It was discovered for the first time in Scandinavia in 2013. Dollar spot is a very serious disease of grass in the United States and a lot of money is spent to control the fungus. In the present study, dollar spot development in potted turfgrass, caused by four geographically distinct, Scandinavian isolates of S. homoeocarpa, was investigated at three different temperatures; 6 °C, 15 °C and 21 °C. The objective was to identify the lowest temperature of development of disease, and to establish possible differences among the isolates with regard to disease development. The isolates used originated from Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The grass samples that were inoculated with S. homoeocarpa came from two golf courses in Sweden, located in Uppsala and in Gävle, respectively. Turf grass was dug out and placed in pots, and subsequently inoculated with fungal hyphae from cultures of S. homoeocarpa. These pots were individually covered with plastic bags and placed in different climate chambers at set temperatures. At three time points (day 7, 14 and 21), the ratio of area infected grass to total grass-covered area was estimated. After all the results had been analysed, it was concluded that dollar spot had the most severe disease development at 6 °C. Differences in disease development of dollar spot were also observed among the four isolates at different temperatures. There was a link between geographical origin of an isolate and its optimum temperature for disease development, which may suggest that the isolates can have adapted to the environment in which they have established themselves. S. homoeocarpa is apparently able to proliferate at low temperatures. The present study demonstrates it should be able to infect grass and establish in turf grass even in a colder climate, and thus it is very likely that dollar spot has gained a foothold in Scandinavia, and that it is here to stay. With climate change taking place, i.e. increasing temperatures and precipitation, which in turn results in elevated humidity, the disease will be able to establish and spread yet more, because the fungus thrives in humid conditions. If the climate zones will continue to move northward in the Nordic countries, it will increase the potential for continued establishment and spread of dollar spot. / SAMMANFATTNING Dollar spot är en svampsjukdom som drabbar gräs och som orsakas av svampen Sclerotinia homoeocarpa. Under 2013 upptäcktes dollar spot för första gången i Norden. Dollar spot är en mycket allvarlig grässjukdom i USA och man spenderar massor med pengar för att bekämpa svampen. I denna uppsats har sjukdomsutvecklingen av dollar spot, från fyra geografiskt skilda isolat, undersökts vid olika temperaturer; 6 °C, 15 °C och 21°C. Detta för att hitta den lägsta tillväxttemperaturen hos svampen som orsakar sjukdomen och även för att upptäcka eventuell skillnad mellan de olika isolatens sjukdomsutveckling i gräs. Isolaten som använts i experimenten kom ifrån Danmark, Norge och Sverige. Gräsproverna som svampen S. homoeocarpa odlades på kom ifrån två golfbanor, från Uppsala respektive Gävle. Krukor med gräs inokulerades med S. homoeocarpa och dessa krukor placerades i klimatskåp som höll olika temperatur. Vid tre tidpunkter (dag 7, 14 och 21) lästes den infekterade gräsarean av. Efter att alla resultat hade sammanställts visade det sig att dollar spot hade den snabbaste och mest aggressiva sjukdomsutvecklingen vid 6 °C. Det fanns även skillnader i sjukdomsutveckling av dollar spot mellan de fyra isolaten vid olika temperaturer. Det fanns en viss koppling mellan geografisk härkomst och optimumtemperatur för sjukdomsutveckling hos isolaten, vilket kan tyda på att de kan ha anpassat sig till den omgivning som de etablerat sig i. Med de låga tillväxttemperaturer som svampen S. homoeocarpa klarar för infektion och etablering i grönytor är det mycket troligt att sjukdomen dollar spot fått fäste i Norden, och kommit för att stanna. Med de klimatförändringar som sker, dvs. ökade temperaturer och ökad nederbörd, som i sin tur medför förhöjd luftfuktighet, kommer sjukdomen att kunna breda ut sig ännu mer, eftersom svampen trivs vid hög luftfuktighet. Flyttas klimatzonerna högre upp i Norden kommer det att bidra till att utbredningen av dollar spot ökar.

Zugl.: Münster (Westfalen), Universiẗat, Diss., 2008.

Th. Etat--Sc. éco.--Bordeaux I, 1988. / Bibliogr. p. 259-266. Index.

Thesis advisor: Matteo Iacoviello / Since its launch, the euro has successfully achieved the status of an international currency, and the prospect of its ability to challenge the dollar is increasingly credible. This paper supplements the ongoing academic discussion by reevaluating the characteristics necessary for such a position in light of the most recent information available on the euro area, and then providing econometric evidence as support. I regress the lags of shares of dollar and euro reserves on the current shares and predict steady state values for each currency. I then regress the same lags, as well as the exchange rate lag, on the change in the euro/dollar exchange rate. I find, first, that the share of euro reserves, while still not as high as the share of dollars, is nonetheless significant: about 26%. Second, the euro/dollar exchange rate is only slightly affected by changes in the share of either currency's reserves. I conclude that confidence in the euro as an alternative international currency is growing, and that the euro has become a real challenge to the dollar. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2007. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Economics. / Discipline: College Honors Program.