Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects up to 10% of school-aged children and half as many adults. The core features of impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattentiveness commonly give rise to academic underachievement, poor social relationships, and increased risk for mood and anxiety disorders. Although the relevant neurobiological mechanisms remain poorly understood, altered mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) transmission has been proposed. The aim of the present study was to compare striatal DA function in treatment-naive adults with ADHD vs. age- and IQ-matched controls. Two PET/[11C]raclopride scans, one with placebo and one with d-amphetamine (d-AMP; 0.3 mg/kg, p.o.), were administered to five men with ADHD and five healthy male volunteers. The ADHD group differed from controls in demonstrating significant d-AMP-induced reductions in posterior caudate (p<0.05). These results may support a proposed model of reduced DA tone leading to increased phasic signaling in ADHD.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2005. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references. Also available online.

La schizophrénie est une maladie mentale grave qui se caractérise par un spectre hétérogène de manifestations cliniques. L’utilisation des antipsychotiques depuis la fin des années 1940 pour traiter la maladie ne permet au mieux que d’aider à contrôler certains symptômes et n’arrive pas à enrayer son décours. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour le traitement des symptômes cognitifs (troubles attentionnels, de mémoire, et surtout troubles de la fonction exécutive) qui sont au cœur de la maladie. L’amélioration des performances cognitives des malades par les différents traitements ne peut être considérée comme un succès et il semble que ce soit un rendez-vous manqué tant les besoins thérapeutiques pour traiter ces symptômes sont essentiels dans la schizophrénie. Dans cette thèse nous avons étudié les déficits de la fonction exécutive dans un modèle hyperdopaminergique, les DAT-KO, qui sont des souris invalidées pour le gène du transporteur de la dopamine (DA). [...]. Nous avons dans un premier temps caractérisé notre modèle animal dans l’Attentional Set-Shifting Test (ASST) qui est un équivalent chez le rongeur du Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), un test permettant de mesurer chez l’Homme les performances de la fonction exécutive. Nous avons démontré que les DAT-KO présentent des performances déficitaires dans l’ASST, conformément à notre hypothèse. En utilisant des antagonistes spécifiques des récepteurs, D1 (le SCH23390) et D2 (le sulpiride) nous avons démontré que le SCH23390 améliorait les performances des souris DAT-KO dans l’ASST contrairement au sulpiride. Ce résultat nous a permis de suggérer que l’hyperdopaminergie, responsable de l’altération de la fonction exécutive des DAT-KO, aurait pour conséquence la sur-activation des récepteurs D1. Nous avons par la suite cherché à voir si l’on peut établir un lien direct entre hyperdopaminergie dans le mPFC qui est reconnu pour être la région traitant le set-shifting et le déficit comportemental. Nous avons modifié la transmission DAergique de deux façons complémentaires, soit par une induction pharmacologique avec un inhibiteur du DAT, le GBR12935, soir par une induction par optogénétique chez les souris DATcre/ChR2 exprimant la Channel Rhodopsin dans les neurones DAergiques. Avec ces deux modèles, nous avons pu montrer que l’action de la DA sur l’altération de la fonction exécutive passait par une sur-activation de la neurotransmission D1 et non D2. Néanmoins, la modulation de l’activité des neurones du PFC par la DA n’est pas uniforme. Elle module les fonctions du PFC en faisant appel à des neurones ayant un rôle spécialisé. Nous avons donc voulu essayer d’établir les mécanismes pouvant être mis en jeu pendant le set-shifting et ainsi essayer d’identifier le substrat neuronal pouvant être impliqué dans la fonction exécutive. A l’aide de deux marqueurs de l’activité neuronale, c-fos et P-ERK, nous avons pu établir que l’activité des neurones du cortex prélimbique (PrL) augmentait pendant une tâche de set-shifting. Nous avons aussi corrélé la modulation par les antipsychotiques du niveau de performance des DAT-KO dans le set-shifting avec le niveau d’activité du PrL et nous avons pu identifier le profil d’activation des deux principales populations neuronales du PFC, les neurones pyramidaux glutamatergiques et les interneurones GABAergiques. Nous avons pu relier ce profil d’activation avec la modulation comportementale des DAT-KO par les antipsychotiques mais aussi par d’autres ligands pharmacologiques actuellement à l’étude comme complément ou traitement alternatif aux antipsychotiques, le LY3979268, un agoniste mGluR2/3 et le CDPPB, un potentiateur mGluR5. L’ensemble de ces résultats nous a permis de mieux comprendre les effets de l’hyperdopaminergie sur le set-shifting mais aussi de pouvoir commencer à identifier le support neuronal de la modulation dopaminergique de la fonction exécutive. / Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness with a large spectrum of clinical manifestations. Since the introduction of antipsychotic medications in the 40’s, only modest progress has been made in the treatment of the disease. Currently used antipsychotics have only partial efficacy, controlling positive symptoms but usually failing to stop the mental decline of the patient. This lack of full-blown efficacy is particularly evident in the treatment of executive function deficits, which are now considered as core symptoms of schizophrenia. Increased dopamine (DA) neurotransmission is considered as a core neurochemical alteration in schizophrenia and all prescribed antipsychotics are dopamine-D2 receptor antagonists. In addition, major cognitive functions that are disarrayed in schizophrenia depend on proper DA regulation. However, there are no studies investigating the link between increased DA-ergic tone and executive function. The present thesis focuses on executive function deficits in a hyperdopaminergic mouse model, the genetically engineered mouse that lacks the dopamine transporter (DAT; DATKO mouse). First, we characterized our animal model in the Attentional Set-Shifting Test (ASST), which is a rodent adaptation of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, a test used to evaluate executive function in humans. DATKO mice had impaired performances in the ASST, confirming our working hypothesis. Systemic administration of the selective D1 antagonist SCH23390 ameliorated the performance of the DATKO in the ASST. In contrast, the D2 antagonist sulpiride had no effect, suggesting that the overactivation of D1 (but not D2) receptors might be involved in hyperdopaminergia-induced ASST deficits. To further investigate a possible causal link between elevated DA and ASST deficits we have induced a hyperdopaminergic state selectively in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the region involved in executive function. This was done (i) pharmacologically, with local microinfusions of the DAT inhibitor GBR12935; (ii) optogenetically, by generating and utilising a novel transgenic tool the DATcre/ChR2 mice which express Channel-Rhodopsin selectively in DA-ergic neurons. In both constructs, PFC hyperdopaminergia resulted in ASST deficits. These, were reversed with SCH23390 but not with sulpiride, clearly establishing a role for D1 receptors in the deleterious effects of PFC hyperdopaminergia on executive function. It has been postulated that dopamine modulates PFC synaptic plasticity and associated cognitive functions through two distinct but interconnected neuronal populations: glutamatergic (Glu-) pyramidal neurons and GABA- interneurons. Immunocytochemistry experiments combining neuronal activation markers (p-ERK; c-fos) and selective labelling of Glu- versus GABA- neurons allowed to parse the role of these two populations in the ASST. A balaced Glu- versus GABA- activation was necessary for a succesful ASST performance. A dysregulated pattern of Glu- versus GABA- activation correlated with ASST deficits, leading us to speculate a putative link between cortical hyperdopaminergia and cortical Gluhypoactivation. Interestingly, glutamatergic ligands such as the mGluR2/3 agonist LY3979268 and the mGluR5 potentiator CDPPB (which are under current investigation in schizophrenia) corrected both the behavioral deficits and the altered neuronal activation pattern of hyperdopaminergic mice in the ASST. Overall, this work: (i) demonstrates for the first time a causal link between PFC hyperdopaminergia and executive deficits; (ii) proposes and validates a new model to study the cellular, molecular and synaptic mechanisms underlying executive dysfunction; (iii) suggests D1 receptor antagonism, in adjunct with current antipsychotic medications, as a novel therapeutic strategy to treat cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia.

No description available.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Stephen W. Kiefer / Methamphetamine is a potent psychomotor stimulant and a major drug of abuse. There is currently no effective medication available for treatment for methamphetamine addiction. The present study investigated the role of the dopamine D3 receptor on IV methamphetamine self-administration and its effect on methamphetamine induced neurochemical changes. Acute administration of the putative D3 receptor antagonists PG-01037 (10, 30 mg/kg, ip) and SB-277011A (12, 24, mg/kg, ip) significantly decreased the break-point for methamphetamine self-administration under a progressive-ratio (PR) schedule by 45 - 70%. Furthermore, both drugs dose dependently attenuated methamphetamine -triggered reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior in the reinstatement model of relapse. As with other drugs of abuse, the rewarding effects of methamphetamine are believed to be mediated by elevated levels of extracellular dopamine in the mesocorticolimbic system. The present study utilized in vivo microdialysis to examine the neurochemical mechanisms modulating the rewarding effects of methamphetamine actions evident in the various animal models of addiction. In the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum, acute methamphetamine (1.0 mg/kg, i.p.,) increased extracellular dopamine by 800 - 900% and decreased GABA by 60 – 65 % in the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum. Pretreatment with SB-277011A (12, 24 mg/kg) potentiated the methamphetamine induced dopamine increase but attenuated the methamphetamine-induced GABA decrease. Take together these data suggest that D3 selective antagonists’ pharmacotherapeutic potential in the treatment of methamphetamine addiction may involve a GABAergic mechanism.

Les antipsychotiques sont des antagonistes du récepteur dopaminergique de type 2 (DRD2) et constituent le principal traitement pharmacologique de la schizophrénie. Le traitement à long-terme par les antipsychotiques peut causer la tolérance au traitement et le développement de la dyskinésie tardive, dont le mécanisme est mal compris et le traitement, insatisfaisant. Il a été démontré que le traitement chronique aux antipsychotiques induit la surexpression du récepteur DRD2 et le stress oxydatif, deux mécanismes associés à la dyskinésie tardive. Le lien entre ces deux phénomènes est mal déterminé. Précédemment, il a été rapporté, dans mon laboratoire d'accueil, que le stress oxydatif, induit par le peroxyde d'hydrogène (H[indice inférieur 2]O[indice inférieur 2]), augmente le niveau du récepteur DRD2 sur la lignée cellulaire de neuroblastomes humains SH-SY5Y. L'hypothèse de recherche présentée ici est que le stress oxydatif est impliqué dans la surexpression du récepteur DRD2 induite par les antipsychotiques et que l'administration d'un antioxydant peut atténuer cette surexpression. Le projet présenté rapporte ainsi les effets des antipsychotiques sur les niveaux d'expression du récepteur DRD2 et les effets de l'inhibition du stress oxydatif par le traitement de l'acide lipoïque, un antioxydant, sur la lignée cellulaire de neuroblastomes humains SH-SY5Y. L'halopéridol, un antipsychotique de première génération, induit une augmentation des niveaux d'expression du récepteur DRD2, alors que Pamisulpride, un antipsychotique de deuxième génération, n'a pas d'effet significatif. De plus, l'halopéridol induit une plus importante augmentation des biomarqueurs du stress oxydatif (carbonylation des protéines, peroxydation lipidique et production de l'anion superoxyde) que l'amisulpride. L'acide lipoïque atténue la surexpression du récepteur DRD2 et le stress oxydatif induit par l'antipsychotique. L'inhibition de la synthèse de catécholamine par l'alpha-méthyl-DL-tyrosine (AMPT) élève l'expression du DRD2 et prévient sa surexpression par les antipsychotiques. Les résultats suggèrent que la surexpression du récepteur DRD2 induite par l'halopéridol est liée au stress oxydatif et proposent des mécanismes potentiels par lesquels l'acide lipoïque peut être considéré comme un agent thérapeutique pour la prévention et le traitement des effets secondaires reliés à l'utilisation des antipsychotiques.

The neurotransmitters serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) play roles in eating disorders, mood disorders, such as depression and anxiety, and in the regulation of locomotion. The 5-HT2C receptor is one of fourteen 5-HT receptor subtypes that is expressed in regions of the brain including the hippocampus, amygdala, dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens (NA) and substantia nigra, and is therefore implicated in behaviours and disorders associated with these regions. 5-HT has been shown to exert both a tonic and phasic inhibitory control, through the 5-HT2C receptor, on the firing rate and bursting activity of DA-containing neurones in the ventral tegmental area which enhances DA release in the NA and prefrontal cortex. In addition, the 5-HT2C receptor is under the control of a monophasic diurnal rhythm and is in a position to alter circadian regulation and behaviour due to its expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (the light entrainable oscillator (LEO)). It was hypothesised that elevating expression of the 5-HT2C receptor would have a detrimental effect on mood and cause hypolocomotion while reducing 5-HT2C receptor expression would improve mood, cause hyperphagia, obesity and hyperlocomotion. In order to investigate these hypotheses mouse models that either over- or under-expressed the 5-HT2C receptor were implemented. The 5-HT2C receptor expression pattern and levels were confirmed in all mouse lines. A behavioural phenotype of hypolocomotion and increased anxiety in the 5-HT2C receptor over-expressing mice and hyperphagia, obesity and hyperlocomotion in the 5-HT2C receptor under-expressing mice were found the latter is conistent with current literature. During backcrossing of the mouse lines onto the C57Bl/6 genetic background the abnormal behavioural phenotypes were lost suggesting that 5-HT2C receptor function is particulary sensitive to the genetic background on which it is being expressed. In response to altered expression levels of 5-HT2C receptor, compensatory alterations were found in the 5-HT system, with an inverse relationship existing between both the 5-HT1A receptor mRNA expression levels and 5-HT release in the hippocampus with the expression levels of the 5-HT2C receptor. Over-expression of 5-HT2C receptor appears to inhibit DA release in the cortex. The circadian experiments showed that under-expressing the 5-HT2C receptor did not alter the regulation of the food entrainable oscillator and there was a suggestion that the regulation of the LEO was affected. In summary, these results demonstrate that altered expression of 5-HT2C receptors results in abnormal behaviours consistent with its role in psychiatric disorders, but that the outcome is dependent on the genetic background.

published_or_final_version / abstract / Zoology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

The neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) represents a neural substrate for positive motivation as its spatiotemporal distribution across the brain is responsible for goaldirected behavior and learning reward associations. The critical determinant of DA release throughout the brain is the firing pattern of DA-producing neurons. Synchronized bursts of spikes can be triggered by sensory stimuli in these neurons, evoking phasic release of DA in target brain areas to drive reward-based reinforcement learning and behavior. These bursts are generated by NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs). This dissertation reports a novel form of long-term potentiation (LTP) of NMDARmediated excitatory transmission at DA neurons as a putative cellular substrate for changes in DA neuron firing during reward learning. Patch-clamp electrophysiological recording from DA neurons in acute brain slices from young adult rats demonstrated that synaptic NMDARs exhibit LTP in an associative manner, requiring coordinated pre- and postsynaptic burst firing. Ca2+ signals produced by postsynaptic burst firing needed to be amplified by preceding metabotropic neurotransmitter inputs to effectively drive plasticity. Activation of NMDARs themselves was also necessary. These two coincidence detectors governed the timingdependence of NMDAR plasticity in a manner analogous to the timing rule for cuereward learning paradigms in behaving animals. Further mechanistic study revealed that PKA, but not PKC, activity gated LTP induction by regulating the magnitude of Ca2+ signal amplification via the inositol 1,4,5-triphospate (IP3) receptor and release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Plasticity of NMDARs was input specific and appeared to be expressed postsynaptically, but was not associated with a change in NMDAR subunit stoichiometry. LTP of NDMARs was DA-independent, and was specific for NMDARs: the same induction protocol produced long-term depression of AMPA receptors. NMDARs that had undergone LTP could be depotentiated in a spike-conditional manner, consistent with active unlearning. Finally, repeated, in vivo amphetamine experience dramatically increased facilitation of spike-evoked Ca2+ signals, which in turn drove enhanced plasticity. NMDAR plasticity thus represents a potential neural substrate for conditioned DA neuron burst responses to environmental stimuli acquired during reward-based learning as well a novel therapeutic target for intervention-based therapy of addictive disorders. / text

The goal of this dissertation was two fold: 1) To relate dopamine responses in the ventral striatum to ethanol preference and consumption, and 2) to investigate the role of the mu opioid receptors in this ethanol induced dopamine release in the ventral striatum. First a two bottle choice experiment established that a substrain of C57BL/6 mice (C57BL/6NCrl) had significantly less preference for and consumption of ethanol than a second substrain of mouse based on the same background (C57BL6/J). The C57BL/6 strain has been extensively used in alcohol drinking studies and is well known for it’s propensity to consume alcohol over water. To determine if differences in ventral striatal dopamine response vii could contribute to this variability in drinking behavior, we characterized the dopamine response in both substrains of mice after intraperitoneal injections of 1.0, 2.0 or 3.0 g/kg ethanol or saline. We found that the acute intraperitoneal ethanol injections in naïve mice caused a significant elevation in dopamine in both substrains at all three doses with a significant difference between substrains at the two highest alcohol doses. Therefore, ethanol induced dopamine release in the ventral striatum may contribute to ethanol preference and consumption. Next, we investigated the effect of acute intraperitoneal ethanol injections on naïve mu opioid receptor knockout mice and in mice pretreated with a mu opioid receptor antagonist. The mice used were all established on the C57BL/6J background. We found that ventral striatal dopamine response was similar in these mice after 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 g/kg intraperitoneal ethanol injections compared to appropriate controls. As both gene deletion and pharmacological blockade of the mu opioid receptor did not affect ethanol stimulated dopamine release, it points to the conclusion that this receptor may not play a significant role in ethanol induced ventral striatal dopamine release. / text