A qualidade para o tratamento radioterápico depende essencialmente da capacidade de realizar medidas de dose absorvida no volume de tratamento, minimizando aquela nos tecidos vizinhos, para tal é necessária a determinação dos parâmetros dosimétricos como Porcentagem de Dose Profunda, Perfil de Campo e Fator de Campo que auxiliam a rotina da radioterapia. Os objetivos deste trabalho são: a determinação desses parâmetros para campos pequenos com feixes de elétrons, através dos dosímetro FXG e compará-los com os obtidos com uma câmara de ionização (CI), além de obter o coeficiente de difusão para o dosímetro FXG e sua energia de ativação. Dessa maneira, campos pequenos foram formados através de colimadores especiais dos quais os parâmetros puderam ser inferidos para ambos os dosímetros. O parâmetro dosimétrico Perfil de Campo foi utilizado também para as medidas do coeficiente de difusão, necessário para se corrigir a dose absorvida no tempo, o qual foi analisado através de uma metodologia inovadora das medidas das absorbâncias espaçostemporais e devido aos seus comportamentos comparados a funções gaussianas, o que possibilitou a sua determinação. O FXG apresentou resolução espacial suficiente para a determinação dos parâmetros dosimétricos, os coeficientes de difusão obtidos têm valores respectivos de 0,20 ± 0,03 e 0,40 ± 0,02 mm2/h, e destes a energia de ativação inferida foi de 0,3 ± 0,1 eV. Das análises dos resultados, pode-se concluir que o FXG pode ser utilizado na rotina de radioterapia também para campos pequenos. / Dosimetric parameters such as Percentage Depth Dose, Field Profile and Output Factor are necessary in radiotherapy routine, once they can help to improve the quality of the treatment and consequently of the absorbed dose delivered to the tumor. In this work the dosimetric parameters for electron beams of 8 and 10 MeV were measured with the chemical dosimeter Fricke Xylenol Gel for small field sizes (square and circular) and were compared with those obtained with an ionization chamber. The chemical dosimeter signal, given by the complex Fe+3 - Xylenol concentration, has a temporal dependency, to which its diffusion coefficient was determined together with the activation energy, necessary for the Fe+3 migrations in the gel. These two parameters were measured, for the first time, for the Fricke Xylenol Gel and for that a novel methodology was also created. The measured parameters, dosimetric ones together with the diffusion coefficient and activation energy corroborate, to present the chemical dosimeter, as an adequate one to be used in radiotherapy with electron beams for small field sizes.

A qualidade para o tratamento radioterápico depende essencialmente da capacidade de realizar medidas de dose absorvida no volume de tratamento, minimizando aquela nos tecidos vizinhos, para tal é necessária a determinação dos parâmetros dosimétricos como Porcentagem de Dose Profunda, Perfil de Campo e Fator de Campo que auxiliam a rotina da radioterapia. Os objetivos deste trabalho são: a determinação desses parâmetros para campos pequenos com feixes de elétrons, através dos dosímetro FXG e compará-los com os obtidos com uma câmara de ionização (CI), além de obter o coeficiente de difusão para o dosímetro FXG e sua energia de ativação. Dessa maneira, campos pequenos foram formados através de colimadores especiais dos quais os parâmetros puderam ser inferidos para ambos os dosímetros. O parâmetro dosimétrico Perfil de Campo foi utilizado também para as medidas do coeficiente de difusão, necessário para se corrigir a dose absorvida no tempo, o qual foi analisado através de uma metodologia inovadora das medidas das absorbâncias espaçostemporais e devido aos seus comportamentos comparados a funções gaussianas, o que possibilitou a sua determinação. O FXG apresentou resolução espacial suficiente para a determinação dos parâmetros dosimétricos, os coeficientes de difusão obtidos têm valores respectivos de 0,20 ± 0,03 e 0,40 ± 0,02 mm2/h, e destes a energia de ativação inferida foi de 0,3 ± 0,1 eV. Das análises dos resultados, pode-se concluir que o FXG pode ser utilizado na rotina de radioterapia também para campos pequenos. / Dosimetric parameters such as Percentage Depth Dose, Field Profile and Output Factor are necessary in radiotherapy routine, once they can help to improve the quality of the treatment and consequently of the absorbed dose delivered to the tumor. In this work the dosimetric parameters for electron beams of 8 and 10 MeV were measured with the chemical dosimeter Fricke Xylenol Gel for small field sizes (square and circular) and were compared with those obtained with an ionization chamber. The chemical dosimeter signal, given by the complex Fe+3 - Xylenol concentration, has a temporal dependency, to which its diffusion coefficient was determined together with the activation energy, necessary for the Fe+3 migrations in the gel. These two parameters were measured, for the first time, for the Fricke Xylenol Gel and for that a novel methodology was also created. The measured parameters, dosimetric ones together with the diffusion coefficient and activation energy corroborate, to present the chemical dosimeter, as an adequate one to be used in radiotherapy with electron beams for small field sizes.

Master of Science / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / William L. Dunn / Neutron dosimeters measure neutron doses but portable, real time, high efficiency, and gamma insensitive neutron dosimeters are not commonly available. Characterization of a newly invented neutron dosimeter, based on perforated semiconductor neutron detectors (SNDs) whose perforations are filled with neutron reactive material, was the main purpose of this research study. The characterization procedure was performed by both simulation and experiment. The Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP) transport code was used to model a boron-filled dosimeter and to study the responses when the dosimeter was located on the surfaces of a water phantom and an anthropomorphic phantom for parallel beams of neutrons having various energy spectra. A pair of detectors was modeled: one bare and one Cd-filtered. Dosimeter responses were normalized for a beam that would produce 1 mSv ambient dose equivalent if incident on the ICRU sphere phantom. Dosimeter responses were estimated at different positions on the torso and it was found that the responses are relatively insensitive to the placement on the torso. For 100% efficient detectors and for beam with a Watt spectrum incident from front to back of the phantom, the bare detector produces about 140 counts per [Mu]Sv and the Cd-filtered detector produces about 80 counts per [Mu]Sv. The experimental characterization study involves observing SND counts with the dosimeter placed on an anthropomorphic torso phantom and determining the corresponding neutron dose. A TLD pair method was used to determine the neutron dose on the surface of the phantom. The neutron reactive material of the dosimeter was [superscript]6LiF, which is different from that assumed for the modeled dosimeter. A bare dosimeter response collected over 10 min was 25113 [plus or minus] 158 counts and the corresponding neutron dose was measured to be 2.57 mSv. The Cd-filtered dosimeter response collected over 10 min was 23886 [plus or minus] 155 counts and the corresponding neutron dose was measured to be 2.32 mSv. The neutron dosimeters are capable of detecting doses in the [Mu]Sv range and above, and are anticipated to provide direct read-out in dose units in future using count-to-dose conversion factors for bare and Cd-filtered SNDs.

Radiodiagnostics is a relatively young field of medicine the objective of which is imaging of anatomic structures and physiological and pathological processes in order to determine diagnoses or prognoses of diseases. For this purpose radiodiagnostics uses ionizing radiation with both its positive and negative effects. The effects are demonstrated also in healthy cells and healthy tissues of the human organism. A radiation protection system therefore establishes, among other things, limit doses to which individuals working with ionizing radiation may be exposed while performing their jobs. The received doses are kept under control by means of a dosimetric system. Essentially, there are two types of dosimeters: passive and active, i.e. electronic. The purpose of this thesis is to compare results from personal film dosimeters with results obtained from electronic dosimeters DMC 2000 XB made by Merlin Gerin and to determine whether electronic dosimeters are suitable for radiodiagnostics and whether they can replace film dosimeters. I performed the measurements at the radiodiagnostics ward of the hospital Nemocnice Sušice, o.p.s. X-ray assistants in the ward are routinely equipped with personal film dosimeters. In addition to their film dosimeters, they were given personal electronic dosimeters for a period of seven months. They were wearing both types of the dosimeters in compliance with the Decree issued by the State Office for Nuclear Safety (SÚJB) No. 307/2002 Coll., as amended, at the reference place, i.e. on the left upper part of the chest on their clothing. Measurements were conducted on five X-ray assistants and one additional personal electronic dosimeter was used to measure the natural background. I have used results from electronic personal dosimeters to evaluate the collective dose of all workers in the individual months, the total collective dose and the sum of dose equivalents in all months for the individual workers. The collective dose from dose equivalents Hp(10) was stable most of the time and in November and December it was slightly higher. This was due to a higher frequency of surgeries which required presence of an assistant with an X-ray device in the operating room. The highest sum of dose equivalents Hp(10) was found for the worker No. 1 due to his more frequent presence in the operating room. Although the X-ray workers take turns at the workplace regularly they perform their tasks at random. I can definitely exclude that the worker No. 1 was in any way different from the other workers - when it comes to radiation protection all X-ray assistants observe the same principles of radiation protection. For better understanding the thesis also includes information about working activities performed by X-ray assistants. Despite the fact that the measurements using electronic dosimeters several times indicated monthly values of personal dose equivalent Hp(10) higher than 0.1 mSv, the evaluation of the respective film dosimeters from the same period of time indicated values lower than 0.1 mSv or lower than 0.05 mSv. Subsequent investigations have shown that CSOD, s.r.o. is capable of measuring values = 0.01 mSv. The discrepancy between the measured results therefore does not come from the evaluation but from a lower sensitivity of the film dosimeter. The thesis also includes evaluation of advantages and disadvantages of both the types of personal dosimeters. Based on results of the measurements, evaluation of advantages and disadvantages of the two types of personal dosimeters and based on working activities of X-ray assistants I can conclude that the personal electronic dosimeter DMC 2000 XB made by Merlin Gerin is suitable for activities at the radiodiagnostics ward and that it may fully replace the film dosimeter.

The thesis is focused on summarizing the current issue of work with experimental lasers in the research center of Prague Asterix Laser System (PALS), which falls under the Institute of Physics and Institute of Plasma Physics. Experimental lasers used for experimental research in the field of powerful laser physics and laser-produced plasma. The main experimental facility PALS is a powerful pulsed laser system Asterix IV., The research center was purchased from the German Max Planck Institute for quadratic Optics in Garching near Munich for a symbolic 1 mark. Asterix is one of the three largest iodine lasers in Europe. Between the research programs being carried out on the experimental development of lasers include applications of plasma point sources of soft non-coherent radiation, development and application of laser plasma X-ray etc. Other facilities located in the research center include PALS laser system Ti - Sapphire power of 25 terawatts. In this system, a similar experiment was performed measuring photon film dosimeters. The experimental laser Asterix IV in the research center PALS have been no experiment with film or electronic dosimeters. This work deals with the possibility of using electronic personal dosimeters when working with lasers and detection sensitivity of the dosimeters, unlike other types of personal dosimeters. This was achieved by measuring the two independent measurements ongoing at the Asterix IV laser system. Possibilities of using electronic personal dosimeters for measuring the pulse field, even though they are designed to measure benefits only in the continuous field is particularly important for workers newly built ELI center in Prague. Center ELI will be the most modern laser equipment in the world. In it will be carried out the research and application projects involving the interaction of light with matter in intensity, which is about 10 times larger than the currently achievable. ELI will deliver ultrashort laser pulses lasting typically a few femtoseconds (10-15 fs) and produce power up to 10 PW. The ELI Center will be unlike PALS controlled area in which it is important to monitor external radiation workers. Therefore, the thesis is aimed at providing support for PALS measurement using electronic personal dosimeters Center ELI. We also compare the sensitivity of the most common types of personal dosimeters such as film and thermoluminescent dosimeters. In the theoretical part of the description and principle of laser Asterix IV. Furthermore, the definition of ionizing radiation and its species with a particular focus on gamma and X-rays. In this thesis remains missing definitions such as dosimetry, types of dosimeters, monitoring, radiation protection and value to it. In the methodology are then analyzed measurements that were carried out in two experiments using electronic personal dosimeters, film dosimeters and thermoluminescent dosimeters. Furthermore, also the deployment of the laser system, focusing mainly on the description of the interaction of the hall and the interaction chamber, where were measured. The methodology is also a series of photos of photos taken at the workplace PALS for easier orientation. In the results, the values of individual measurements recorded for better clarity in the tables and charts described. The discussion is focused on the confirmation of hypotheses. Are compared to results from electronic and film dosimeters and electronic dosimeters and termoluminescent. Results are based on one shot and statistically processed. In the event of a general summary of the work, it is recommended the use of electronic personal dosimeters to work with experimental lasers and supported the intention of the use of electronic personal dosimeters in the newly built Center ELI in Prague, mainly because of higher sensitivity than that with film and TLD and also for easier, faster, and economical evaluation of the benefits.

A utilização de detectores de radiação é de imensa importância na área de dosimetria, pois permite a quantificação da dose absorvida no meio. Uma técnica interessante para esta finalidade é o uso de detectores por cintilação. Estudos recentes com cintiladores plásticos e líquidos demonstraram a viabilidade do uso de detecção de cintilação por uma câmera digital com sensor CCD ou CMOS. Desse modo, este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver um dosímetro cintilador de baixo custo para viabilidade de seu uso e, de um sistema de detecção de cintilação através de uma câmera digital, para que assim pudesse ser realizada sua caracterização dosimétrica. O sistema dosimétrico foi construído a partir de um cintilador líquido a base de antraceno. Dosimetricamente verificou-se uma linearidade de resposta para a dose de 0,1 a 25,53 Gy, para a taxa de dose de 6,66 Gy/min e uma pequena diminuição da sensibilidade do dosímetro quando aumentada a taxa de dose de irradiação. Com relação à dependência energética, foi verificado um aumento na sensibilidade do dosímetro de 10,8% ao se variar a energia de 100 a 160 kVp. Quando comparado a um cintilador comercial, apresentou uma intensidade de sinal reduzida e, em uma análise de reprodutibilidade, obteve-se uma variação máxima de 2% em relação a repetição de uma mesma medida. O cintilador líquido apresentou baixa estabilidade pré e pós-irradiação, com uma variação de cor e redução do sinal ao decorrer dos dias. Para medidas bidimensionais o sistema montado mostrou-se promissor, uma vez que em medidas de deposição de dose com a profundidade para várias energias de feixes, verificou-se o aumento da penetração da radiação com o aumento da energia do feixe e as medidas de penumbra de um feixe parcialmente blindado com 2 mmPb apresentaram um valor de 1,79 cm, considerando o tipo de tubo gerador e blindagem utilizada. Por toda a caracterização realizada o sistema dosimétrico mostrou-se aplicável para dosimetria, desde que operado considerando as características apresentadas. / The utilization of radiation detector is important in the dosimetric area, because it allow the quantification of absortion dose in the medium. An interesting tehnique for this finalitypurpose is the use of scintillation detector. Recent studies with plastic scintillators and liquid scintillators have demonstrated the feasibility of using scintillation detection by a digital camera with CCD or CMOS sensors. Thus, this study is the intent to develop a low-cost scintillation dosimeter for the feasibility of its use and detection scintillation system through by a digital camera, with the finality of dosimetric characterization. The dosimetric system was constructed from using liquid scintilator based anthracene. A linearity dose response between 0.1 to 25.53 Gy was found for the dose rate of 6.66 Gy/min and the dosimeter sensibility was decreased when the dose rate increased. When varied the energy from 100 to 160 kVp, was verified an increased of 10.8% in the dosimeter sensibility, due the energy dependence. When compared to a commercial dosimeter, it shows signal intensity decreased and, the study of reproducibility, a maximum variation of 2% was obtained in relation to the repetition of the same measure. The liquid scintillator presented low stability before and after irradiation, with a color variation and signal reduction over the days. For two-dimensional measurements the assembled system proved to be promising, since in dose deposition measurements with the depth for several beam energies, the penetration of the radiation was increased with the increase of the beam energy and the penumbra measurements of a narrow beam with 2mmPb presented a value of 1.79 cm, considering the type of generator tube and narrow used. Throughout the characterization carried out the dosimetric system proved to be applicable for dosimetry, if operated considering the characteristics presented.

A chemical solution composed of paraffin wax, chloroform, and methyl yellow biological indicator was shaped into a solid 3-D apple phantom to determine absorbed dose from e-beams and X-rays. The purpose of this research was to determine the most uniform irradiation treatment on apple-phantoms (a complex shaped target) and GAFCHROMIC® HD-810 films using electron beams from (1) a 2 MeV Van de Graaff (VDG) accelerator, (2) a 10 MeV Linear Accelerator (LINAC), and (3) X-rays from a 5 MeV LINAC. Irradiation with the VDG accelerator confirmed that tilting the apple-phantom yaxis towards the e-beam source by 90 degrees, 45, and 22.5 degrees resulted in more uniform treatment in both the methyl yellow apple phantom and HD-810 film. The phantoms were over-exposed at the top and bottom regions when their y-axis was oriented exactly parallel to the e-beam at 22.5-degrees. The 45-degree orientation ensured uniformity throughout the whole apple surface without overexposing it at the top and bottom. In contrast, the 90-degree orientation resulted in the least effective treatment with the bottom and top region not receiving any radiation. A 10 MeV dual e-beam showed uniform penetration from top to bottom in the HD-810 film and apple phantoms. The HD-810 film responded linearly with doses up to 1.5 kGy while the methyl yellow response was non-linear up to 0.5 kGy maximum. The X-ray irradiation completely penetrated the apple phantoms from top to bottom showing excellent lateral uniformity at different penetration depths.

Inaccurate dose calculation in radiotherapy can lead to errors in treatment delivery and evaluation of treatment efficacy. Respiration can cause of intra-fractional motions, leading to uncertainties in tumor targeting. These motions should therefore be included in dose calculation. The finite element method-based deformable registration platform MORFEUS is able to accurately quantify organ deformations. The dose accumulation algorithm included in MORFEUS takes organ deformation and tumor movement into account. This study has experimentally validated this dose accumulation algorithm by combining 3D gel dosimetry, respiratory motion-mimicking actuation mechanism, and finite element analysis. Results have shown that within the intrinsic measurement uncertainties of gel dosimetry, under normal conformal dose distribution conditions, more than 90% of the voxels in MORFEUS generated dose grids have met the criterion analogous to the gamma test. The average (SD) distance between selected pairs of isodose surfaces on the gel and MORFEUS dose distributions is 0.12 (0.08) cm.

Inaccurate dose calculation in radiotherapy can lead to errors in treatment delivery and evaluation of treatment efficacy. Respiration can cause of intra-fractional motions, leading to uncertainties in tumor targeting. These motions should therefore be included in dose calculation. The finite element method-based deformable registration platform MORFEUS is able to accurately quantify organ deformations. The dose accumulation algorithm included in MORFEUS takes organ deformation and tumor movement into account. This study has experimentally validated this dose accumulation algorithm by combining 3D gel dosimetry, respiratory motion-mimicking actuation mechanism, and finite element analysis. Results have shown that within the intrinsic measurement uncertainties of gel dosimetry, under normal conformal dose distribution conditions, more than 90% of the voxels in MORFEUS generated dose grids have met the criterion analogous to the gamma test. The average (SD) distance between selected pairs of isodose surfaces on the gel and MORFEUS dose distributions is 0.12 (0.08) cm.

Δοσιμετρία είναι ο κλάδος της επιστήμης που ασχολείται με τις μετρήσεις ιοντιζουσών ακτινοβολιών, με σκοπό την ποσοτική έκφραση της σχέσης μεταξύ των χαρακτηριστικών ενός πεδίου ακτινοβόλησης και του αποτελέσματος της ακτινοβόλησης ενός συστήματος. Η δοσιμετρία συνεισφέρει σημαντικά σε όσες επιστήμες κάνουν χρήση ιοντιζουσών ακτινοβολιών, και ιδιαίτερα στο χώρο της Ιατρικής, απ’ όπου και πρωτοξεκίνησε η εφαρμογή της. Υπάρχουν πολλές μέθοδοι δοσιμετρίας, και φυσικά, πολλά διαφορετικά είδη δοσιμέτρων. Στη συγκεκριμένη εργασία θα ασχοληθούμε αποκλειστικά με τη δοσιμετρία θερμοφωταύγειας. Το φαινόμενο της θερμοφωταύγειας βρίσκει πρακτική εφαρμογή στη δοσιμετρία ιοντιζουσών ακτινοβολιών με τη συλλογή των οπτικών φωτονίων που εκπέμπονται κατά την αποδιέγερση του θερμοφωταυγάζοντος υλικού, που χρησιμοποιείται. Η μέθοδος της θερμοφωταύγειας αποτελεί την πιο αξιόπιστη μέθοδο για την μέτρηση δόσεων ακτινοβολίας από ιατρικές εξετάσεις. Οι εφαρμογές της δοσιμετρίας θερμοφωταύγειας στην Ιατρική αφορούν κυρίως μετρήσεις της απορροφούμενης δόσεως στην Ακτινοθεραπεία και την Ακτινοδιαγνωστική, ενώ εφαρμόζεται σε μικρότερο βαθμό και στην Πυρηνική Ιατρική. Σκοπός της συγκεκριμένης εργασίας είναι η μέτρηση δόσεων ασθενών, που υποβάλλονται σε ακτινοδιαγνωστικές εξετάσεις, με τη βοήθεια κρυστάλλων θερμοφωταύγειας. Στην Ακτινοδιαγνωστική, η ανάγκη της δοσιμέτρησης προκύπτει από τις επιταγές της Ακτινοπροστασίας, η οποία απαιτεί τη μικρότερη δυνατή δόση στον ασθενή και το προσωπικό, με την καλύτερη δυνατή ποιότητα απεικόνισης. Κι η ανάγκη αυτή γίνεται πιο επιτακτική, όταν οι ακτινοδιαγνωστικές εξετάσεις αφορούν νεογνά και μικρά παιδιά, καθώς και συγκεκριμένες ομάδες του πληθυσμού που χαρακτηρίζονται από υψηλό βαθμό ακτινοευαισθησίας. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, καλούμαστε να υπολογίσουμε την δόση που λαμβάνουν ασθενείς στον θυροειδή αδένα, όταν υποβάλλονται σε εξέταση οισοφαγογραφήματος που πραγματοποιούνται προκειμένου να ελεγχθεί η φυσιολογία και η λειτουργία του πεπτικού συστήματος. Παράλληλα, καλούμαστε να εκτιμήσουμε τον τυχόν κίνδυνο καρκινογένεσης, λόγω των στοχαστικών αποτελεσμάτων της ακτινοβολίας, έπειτα από συσχέτιση με την τιμή της απορροφούμενης δόσης που προκύπτει. / --