Orientador: Luiz de Souza Corrêa / Banca: Marli de Fátima Stradioto Papa / Banca: Kuniko Iwamoto Haga / Banca: Silvia Correa Santos / Banca: Omar Jorge Sabbag / Resumo: A figueira é propagada comercialmente por meio de estaquia e a propagação sexuada, ou seja, por sementes é utilizada exclusivamente em trabalhos de melhoramento genético. A enxertia é uma das formas de propagação das frutíferas, e em relação à cultura da figueira, poderá vir a ser uma forma eficiente de aumentar a produção, e controlar os danos causados pela seca da figueira (C. fimbriata) que inicialmente reduz a produtividade e a qualidade dos frutos, causando, posteriormente, a morte da planta. A resistência varietal é a medida de controle mais indicada, entretanto, a ocorrência de diferentes raças fisiológicas do fungo tem dificultado a avaliação de porta-enxertos e copas resistentes. O objetivo do presente trabalho consistiu em verificar o pegamento, desenvolvimento e produção de plantas do figo Roxo de Valinhos enxertadas sobre diversos porta-enxertos, bem como verificar se dentre as variedades avaliadas existe resistência à seca da figueira / Abstract: A tree is commercially propagated by cuttings, grafting and tissue culture. The sexual propagation, by seeds is used exclusively for breeding programs. Grafting is a way of fruit-trees spreading, and for the culture of the fig tree, could be an effective way to increase the production, and control the damage caused by dry fig, initially reduces the productivity and fruit quality, leading eventually to plant death. The varieties resistant is the most appropriate control measure, however, the occurrence of different fungus physiological races has been making hard to evaluate rootstocks and canopy resistance. The aim of this study was to verify the fixation, development and production plant fig Purple Valinhos grafted on different rootstocks, and to discover if there is among the varieties tested in drought resistance of the fig / Doutor

Magister Pharmaceuticae - MPharm / Leonotis leonurus, a South African indigenous medicinal plant, is frequently used in the form of a tea. However, this dosage form has many disadvantages. Consequently three L. leonurus solid extract preparations were prepared and explored as possible replacements of the tea form, but very little was known about their physical and chemical stability during storage. The specific objectives were to: (i) prepare a freeze dried aqueous extract (FDAE), 20 % aqueous ethanol (Aq EtOH) extract and calcium alginate beads of the FDAE form of L. leonurus, (ii) characterize the extracts using parameters of select physical and chemical features and, (iii) determine the long-term stability of the extracts. It was hypothesised that the Aq EtOH extract would contain higher levels of chemical marker compounds (marrubiin and leonurine) than the FDAE and calcium alginate FDAE beads of L. leonurus and, that the calcium alginate FDAE beads would have greater stability (i.e. longer shelf-life) than the FDAE and the Aq EtOH extract. The three L. leonurus solid extracts were prepared using accepted published methods. For the physical characterization of the extracts, the organoleptic properties were determined using the natural senses (e.g. sight, smell, taste, etc.) and for chemical characterization, total phenol content (TPC; using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent method), total flavonoid content (TFC; using aluminium chloride-methanol solution) and antioxidant activity (using the -diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) assay). To establish the long-term stability of the preparations, encapsulated L. leonurus solid extracts was stored in sealed standard plastic containers at four conditions: (A), room temperature of 24 ˚C ± 5 ˚C; (B), fixed temperature of 30˚C ± 5 ˚C and (C), elevated temperature of 40˚C ± 5 ˚C for 6 months, and (D), accelerated stability test conditions of 40˚C ± 5 ˚C / 75 % RH for 4 weeks. Samples of the stored encapsulated preparations were collected periodically and assessed for changes in organoleptic properties, TPC, TFC, antioxidant activity levels and marker compound (i.e. marrubiin and leonurine) levels. The latter was determined by validated HPLC assay. Yields of 19.9, 12.82 and 10.7 % of FDAE, Aq EtOH extract and calcium alginate FDAE beads were obtained, respectively. Physically the calcium alginate beads contained less moisture (1.86 %) than the FDAE (3.77 %) and Aq EtOH (2.91 %). Chemically the FDAE, Aq EtOH extract and calcium alginate FDAE beads respectively had appreciable and similar TPC (i.e.7.86, 7.52 &, 6.94 mg GAE/g; p > 0.05; Anova) and TFC (i.e. 4.30, 4.47 & 3.67 mg QE/g; p > 0.05; Anova) levels, but variable amounts of marrubiin (i.e. 22.5, 17.5, and 0.4 ug/mg plant extract) and leonurine (i.e. 2.0, 1.4 and 0.7 ug/mg plant extract), respectively. The antioxidant activity levels were also different i.e. EC50 values of 7.71, 6.66 and 11.53 mg/mL (student t-test p-value of < 0.0001; ANOVA-test; p< 0.05) for the FDAE, Aq EtOH extract and calcium alginate FDAE beads, respectively. During storage (i.e. stability study) the L. leonurus solid extracts generally remained physically unaffected by temperature (i.e. no significant change in organoleptic features), but when exposed to humidity the FDAE and Aq EtOH extracts showed clear signs of physical degradation i.e. changed from being flaky powders to sticky melted masses, while the calcium alginate beads remained unchanged. Within 1 month storage at RT, 30 °C, 40 °C and 1 week at 40 °C / 75 % RH the TPC of the encapsulated FDAE decreased significantly by 61, 60, 58 and 52 %, respectively, that for the encapsulated Aq EtOH extract by 61, 54, 46 and 50 %, respectively, and for calcium alginate FDAE beads by 66, 71, 59 and 57 %, respectively. Using TPC as a stability parameter all three encapsulated extracts had very short shelf-lives ranging from 1.24 weeks (0.31 months) to 3.72 weeks (0.93 months). Under the same conditions and storage periods (i.e. 1 month & 1 week) the TFC of the encapsulated FDAE decreased significantly by 25, 25, 29 and 66 %, respectively, for encapsulated Aq EtOH extract by 26, 26, 23 and 70 %, respectively, and the calcium alginate FDAE beads by 55, 55, 52 and 64 %, respectively. The results obtained for TFC was thus similar to that obtained for the TPC data. Based on the TFC data all three encapsulated extracts had very short shelf-lives ranging, from 1.56 weeks (0.39 months) to 6.76 weeks (1.69 months). Under the same conditions and storage periods (i.e. 1 month & 1 week) as that used to determine TPC and TFC, the antioxidant activity of the extracts changed little, i.e. decreased by 0.2, 0.1, 0.8 and 2 %, respectively for FDAE, by 0.7 %, 1 %, 0.1 % and 5.3 %, respectively for the Aq EtOH and by 2, 2, 1.4 and 0.8 %, respectively for the calcium alginate FDAE beads. Moreover, based on antioxidant activity, all three encapsulated extracts had relatively long shelf-lives ranging from 15.6 weeks (3.9 months) to 22.4 weeks (5.6 months). Finally, the determination of the stability of the encapsulated L. leonurus extracts stored under stress conditions (i.e. 40 °C / 75 % RH) and based on marker compound levels was unresolved. Between the time of extract preparation and characterisation until start of the stability study the marrubiin levels in the FDAE, Aq. ETOH and calcium beads had decreased from 22.5, 17.5, and 0.4 ug/mg plant extract, respectively, to 0.30, 0.11, 0.30 μg/mg, respectively, and the leonurine levels from 2.0, 1.4 and 0.7 to 0.46, 0.38 and 0.09 μg/mg, respectively and was too low to conduct a meaningful stability study with the developed validated assay. Overall, all three the encapsulated L. leonurus solid extracts studied were clearly very unstable and did not have suitable long-term storage stability. The modification of the freeze-dried aqueous extract of L. leonurus into a calcium alginate bead form seemed to combat physical instability but did not improve the chemical instability of the aqueous extract. It is therefore recommended that the addition of excipients or other post extract modification (e.g. production of phytosomes) be explored to combat the hygroscopicity of L. leonurus FDAE and ultimately improve its overall product stability.

Magister Pharmaceuticae - MPharm / Leonotis leonurus (L. leonurus) and Artemisia afra (A. afra) are two of the most commonly used medicinal plants in South Africa traditionally advocated for use in asthma. However, proper scientific studies to validate these claimed uses are lacking and little is known about the mechanisms for this effect. These plants contain flavonoids, which are reported to have smooth muscle relaxant activity and may be responsible for the activity of these two plants. The objectives of this study were to: (1) determine and compare the flavonoid profiles and levels in A. afra and L. leonurus, (2) compare the respiratory smooth muscle relaxant effects of freeze-dried aqueous extracts of A. afra and L. leonurus and (3) investigate whether K⁺ - channel activation (i.e. KATP channel) is one possible mechanism of action that can explain the effect obtained in traditional use of these two plants. It was hypothesized that: (1) the flavonoid levels and profile of A. afra would be greater than the flavonoid levels and profile of L. leonurus, (2) A. afra would have a more potent respiratory muscle relaxant effect than L. leonurus and (3) A. afra and L. leonurus will inhibit K⁺ - induced contractions in a superior manner than carbachol and histamine - induced contractions. To realize these objectives, freeze-dried aqueous extracts (FDAE) of the dried leaves of the two plants were prepared. A validated HPLC assay was developed and used to identify and determine the levels of luteolin in the plant preparations. Solutions of the plant extracts were studied in the isolated guinea-pig trachea tissue preparation in the presence of carbachol, histamine and KCL. The possible mechanism of action of the two plants was determined by cumulative log dose-response curves (LDRC) for carbachol, histamine and KCL in the absence and presence of 1, 30 and 100 mg/ml solutions of the plant extracts. The flavonoid profile of un-hydrolyzed and hydrolyzed L. leonurus was greater than that of un-hydrolyzed and hydrolyzed A. afra. The levels of free and total luteolin in A. afra FDAE (8.977 ± 0.73 μg/ml and 16.394 ± 0.884 μg/ml, respectively) were significantly (p < 0.001) higher than that in L. leonurus FDAE (0.929 ± 0.066 μg/ml and 3.093 ± 0.531 μg/ml, respectively). L. leonurus and A. afra relaxed tracheal smooth muscles contracted with histamine, KCL and carbachol in a dose dependent manner. The degree of relaxant activity of L. leonurus versus the three inducers of contraction (agonists) could be classified as KCL > carbachol > histamine, with EC₅₀ values of 9.87, 29.34 and 94.76 mg/ml, respectively. The A. afra tracheal smooth muscle relaxant activity was categorized as carbachol > histamine > KCL, with EC₅₀ values of 13.93, 15.47 and 19.88 mg/ml, respectively. Overall, A. afra which contained the higher levels of luteolin, was more potent at relaxing the guinea pig tracheal smooth muscle than L. leonurus. Collectively, the results confirm that aqueous solutions of A. afra and L. leonurus as used in local traditional practice have potent but different degrees of bronchodilator activities that could be useful in the treatment of asthma, and that these actions may be related to each plant's luteolin (or flavonoid) levels. Moreover it is very unlikely that KATP channels are primarily responsible for the actions of A. afra and L. leonurus, but rather that more than one mechanism of action is involved in the tracheal smooth muscle relaxant effects of these two plants. / National Research Foundation

The main objective of this study was to determine the effect of fruit ripeness and drying method on the oxidative stability and micro-component content of avocado oil extracted with supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2). A secondary objective was to determine the effect of fruit ripeness, method of fruit drying and extraction method on the extractability of avocado oil with hexane and SC-CO2. For the oil extractability study, unripe and ripe avocado fruit pieces were either freeze-dried or oven-dried (80oC) and extracted with hexane or SC-CO2. For both extraction methods, oil yield was higher from ripe fruit than from unripe fruit. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) indicated structural degradation during ripening, making the oil more available for extraction in ripe fruit. Oil from freeze-dried samples was in most cases more extractable than from oven-dried samples possibly through formation of rigid structures due to starch gelatinisation and dehydration and protein crosslinking around the oil cells during oven drying. Oil yield was higher with hexane than with SC-CO2 extraction because hexane is less selective, permeates the whole plant material and leads to a more complete extraction, while SC-CO2 may create paths of least resistance in the plant material where it moves preferentially, thus leading to a less complete extraction. For oxidative stability studies and micro-component characterisation, oil extractions were performed on an industrial scale SC-CO2. extractor. For all treatments (unripe freeze-dried, ripe freeze-dried, unripe oven-dried, ripe oven-dried), oil was divided into four fractions and analysed for fatty acid profile, peroxide value (PV), anisidine value (AV), free fatty acids (FFA), oxidative stability index (OSI), colour, tocopherol, sterol, chlorophyll, carotenoid and total unsaponifiable content. Oil from ripe, freeze-dried avocado had relatively lower levels of chlorophyll, carotenoids and tocopherols, than oil samples from the other treatments. This may be due to relatively higher lipoxygenase levels in ripe fruit which may bring about higher oxidative breakdown of these components. Also, the activity of lipoxygenase may be preserved under the lower temperature conditions of freeze-drying, but inactivated at high temperature during oven-drying. Intensity of blue and red on the Lovibond colour scale of all oil samples as well as chlorophyll and carotenoid content increased with progressive extraction. These pigments are presumably extracted in the latter stages of extraction because they are located in chloroplasts, chromoplasts and idioblast cells with thicker membranes than the parenchyma cells where triglycerides are located. Levels of total sterols, total tocopherols and their isomers did not show any specific trends with progressive extraction, which could be related to their location in cell membranes where they would be extracted concurrently with the triglycerides. Levels of total unsaponifiables were mostly higher in the first than the latter fractions. This could be due to the early elution of non-polar waxes which are highly soluble in SC-CO2 and highly available due to their location on the surface of the avocado skin. The fatty acid profile of the avocado oil was not influenced by the degree of ripeness or drying method and therefore did not affect the OSI. Oleic acid increased while linoleic acid decreased with progressive extraction. Compared to the changes observed in levels of some of the micro-components, the changes in fatty acid levels with progressive extraction were relatively small and the fatty acid profile alone could not explain the OSI of the oil. Oil from oven-dried avocado had lower PVs but higher AVs than oil from freeze-dried fruit indicating more advanced oxidative deterioration in oil from oven-dried samples than from freeze-dried samples. FFA levels were higher in oil from ripe, freeze-dried fruit. Levels of hydrolytic enzymes increase during fruit ripening and are preserved during freeze-drying while they are inactivated during oven-drying. FFA levels decreased with progressive extraction. Free fatty acids are very soluble in the SC-CO2 and due to their location on the surface of the plant material, they could be extracted early in the extraction. Oil from oven-dried fruit had relatively higher OSI compared to the other treatments. The OSI of all samples increased with progressive extraction. There was a significant negative correlation between FFA and OSI for both drying methods. AV correlated positively with OSI for oil from oven-dried fruit and negatively for oil from freeze-dried fruit. AV contributed the most to the prediction of OSI in oven-dried fruit, while FFA contributed the most in freeze-dried fruit. It was suggested that the high OSI of oil from oven-dried fruit, despite its high AV, may be due to the presence of compounds with high antioxidant activity in the oil formed through the high temperatures of the oven-drying process. Therefore, using multiple regression techniques, predictive models were developed to determine the effect of the micro-components on the oxidative stability of the oil. The OSI correlated positively with chlorophyll (0.83) and carotenoids (0.80). The models indicated that chlorophyll and carotenoids were the most important variables in predicting the oxidative stability of avocado oil extracted with SC-CO2. This might be due to the antioxidant effect of carotenoids and the possible formation of pheophytin and pyropheophytin, thermal breakdown products of chlorophyll, which exert antioxidant effects in oil. / Thesis (PhD (Food Science))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Food Science / unrestricted

The total water uptake, rate of water uptake, extract release volume and maximum shear force were measured on a series of samples of irradiated freeze-dried beef. Forty seven pieces of round steak (2.5 cm x 2.5 cm x 10.4 cm or 1" x 1" x 4") were irradiated at one, three and five megarad. The control samples were not irradiated. Half of the samples were irradiated when fresh, and the other half were irradiated after freeze drying. This procedure has been defined as the "fresh-dry" irradiation sequence throughout the report. The samples were frozen in an air blast at two temperatures (-22.2°C and -56.1°C). Freeze-drying was carried out below 300 microns of Hg and a maximum shelf temperature of 15.6°C (60°F). There appears to be three phases of water uptake: 1) A very rapid, almost instantaneous, absorption. 2) A more gradual uptake (called Part.1 in the report). 3) A relatively slow asymptotic approach to an equilibrium condition (Part 2). These two last phases are shown to be straight lines when the logarithm of the water uptake is plotted against the logarithm of the immersion time. Irradiation level has no significant effect on the final water content or on the slow asymptotic absorption (Part 2) or the extract release volume, but has a significant effect on the gradual water uptake (Part 1) and on the shear press force. Fresh-dry irradiation sequence (and freezing rate) have a significant effect on the total water uptake and on the slow asymptotic water (Part 2) uptake, but not on the gradual water uptake (Part 1), or on the extract release volume or on the shear press forces. Freezing rates have a significant effect on the total water uptake, but not on the slow asymptotic water uptake (Part 2), on the gradual water uptake (Part 1), on the extract release volume or on the shear press forces. The highest total water uptake was found for the meat irradiated when fresh, and slow frozen at -2 2.2°C. The mechanism of the gradual absorption appears to follow a phenomena of water flow, as evidenced by the straight line relationship found in the plots of logarithm water uptake versus logarithm immersion time. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

A total of seven anthocyanin pigments were observed in both paper and thin layer chromatograms of the fresh and freeze-dried compressed samples stored for O month whereas the freeze-dried compressed samples stored at 70 F and 100 F for 6 months showed the retention of three to six pigments. All of those seven pigments were unstable and cyanidin-3- (2G- xylosylrutinoside) was the least stable pigment. The separation of anthocyanina by disc gel electrophoresis was studied for the first time. Disc electropherograms of fresh and freeze-dried com-pressed sour cherries stored at O month revealed the presence of eight bands whereas the freeze-dried compressed sour cherries stored at 70 F and 100 F for 6 months showed the retention of three to four bands. In further study, this technique could be helpful for the separation of anthocyanins in other fruits. The study indicated that the fresh samples had anthocyanin content higher than those of the freeze-dried compressed samples stored at 70 F and 100 F for 6 months and also showed that the degradation of anthocyanins is greater at the higher storage temperature with longer storage periods.

Thesis. 1975. M.S.--Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dept. of Nutrition and Food Science. / Bibliography: leaves 109-112. / M.S.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Nutrition and Food Science, 1979. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND SCIENCE. / Bibliography: leaves 153-157. / Ph.D.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(農学) / 乙第12849号 / 論農博第2801号 / 新制||農||1027(附属図書館) / 学位論文||H26||N4866(農学部図書室) / 31432 / (主査)教授 安達 修二, 教授 保川 清, 教授 谷 史人 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

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