Objective: To investigate differences in dietary intake variables and anthropometric measurements in healthy young adult women of healthy body mass index (BMI) with high and low scores of cognitive eating restraint (CER), disinhibition (DI), and hunger. Design: Cross-sectional study in which the Eating Inventory was completed along with the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire and anthropometric measurements using standard procedures and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, respectively. Participants: 65 healthy young adult women. Setting: This research was conducted in the Bone Laboratory on the campus of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. Statistical analyses: Independent t-tests, Pearson correlation coefficient analyses, and general linear regression models. Results: Women with high CER scores (n=32; mean±SD CER score=13.1±2.4) consumed more fruits per day (2.4±0.9 svg/d) compared to women with low CER scores (n=33; CER score=4.5±3.0; fruits=1.8±1.1 svg/d; p<0.05). Women with high hunger scores (n=35; hunger score=7.5±2.2) consumed less fruits per day (1.8±0.9 svg/d) compared to women with low hunger scores (n=30; hunger score=3.0±1.1; fruits=2.4±1.1 svg/d; p<0.05). Women with high compared to low CER scores had higher body weight (p<0.05), BMI (p<0.05), fat mass (p<0.05), and body fat percentage (p<0.05), while women with high (n=31; DI score=7.6±2.5) compared to low (n=34; DI score=2.9±1.0) DI scores were taller (p<0.05). Hunger predicted estimated daily dietary intakes of total energy (p<0.05), protein (p<0.01), and fat (p<0.01), while CER (p<0.05) and DI (p<0.05) predicted estimated daily dietary fruit intake. Conclusion: In healthy young adult women, eating characteristics can distinguish between some dietary intake patterns and anthropometric measurements. Hunger is a predictor of estimated energy, protein, and fat intake in these women. / Master of Science

The early adult years are critical as they provide the final window of opportunity to maximize peak bone mass and help prevent osteoporosis later in life. Dietary habits of young women are often molded by social pressures to be thin. Negative implications for cognitive eating restraint (CER) on bone health have been shown, but direct evidence to support such contentions is limited. Therefore, this study was conducted to further investigate the relationships between CER and bone health in young women. Women aged 18 to 25 years with normal body mass index and limited physical activity participated in this study. Body composition and anthropometric variables, dietary intake, endocrine factors, biomarkers of bone turnover, and measurements of bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD) were examined cross-sectionally in women with high (n = 31) and low (n = 34) CER scores. High CER participants possessed more fat mass (FM) (p < 0.05) and percent body fat (BF%) (p = 0.01) and consumed a greater number of servings of fruits and vegetables (p < 0.05) per day than the CER participants. No differences in biochemical measurements, BMC or BMD were found between groups. Using similar methods, a study was conducted to compare high (n = 27) and low (n = 26) CER groups at baseline and after 6-months. At baseline, the high CER group possessed significantly higher FM (p < 0.05) and BF% (p = 0.01) and lower biochemical markers of bone formation (p < 0.05) than the low CER group; no other group differences were apparent at baseline. Using repeated measures ANOVA, a significant Group x Time interaction was identified for salivary cortisol concentrations (p < 0.05). Mean salivary cortisol concentrations were significantly lower at 6-months versus baseline in the high CER group (p < 0.05) but did not differ between time points in the low CER group. No other significant Group x Time interactions were found. Overall, despite finding a lower serum osteocalcin concentration in the high CER group at baseline, evidence of compromised BMC or BMD between women with high versus low CER scores over 6 months was not found. / Ph. D.

High body weight seems protective of bone mass, specifically bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD), thereby reducing the risk of osteoporosis. Cognitive eating restraint (CER), diet composition, and the satiety hormone, leptin, produced by adipocytes, are associated with body mass and may also influence bone mass. Few studies have examined these relationships. To investigate the relationship between leptin and CER score, 36 premenopausal, healthy weight women, as defined by body mass index (BMI) of 18-25 kg/m², aged 18-25 years were studied. Women were categorized by baseline Eating Inventory questionnaire scores into either the high CER group (score > 9, n = 20) or low CER group (score < 9, n = 16). Serum leptin concentration was significantly lower in the low CER group versus high CER group at baseline. A positive relationship between serum leptin concentration and body fat mass and body fat % in normal weight women despite differences in CER scores was observed. In a separate study, overweight and obese women, (BMI > 25 to < 43 kg/m²), aged 32-45 years, were randomly assigned to either a low-carbohydrate, high-protein (LCHP) or low-fat, high-carbohydrate (LFHC) diet for 12 weeks. Serum leptin concentration was significantly greater in the LCHP versus the LFHC diet group at 12 weeks (p < 0.05). Over time, significant decreases in serum leptin concentration, BMI, body weight, total lean mass, total fat mass, and body fat % were observed in both diet groups. Serum leptin concentration was positively associated with body weight, fat mass, and body fat % regardless of diet consumed. Both studies are novel in their respective populations and show no direct link between leptin and bone mass when considered in the context of CER or diet composition. / Master of Science

The purpose of this study was to examine any differences that may exist among demographic variables such as gender, age, and race in regard to internalization of society and media messages leading to body dissatisfaction that may lead to disordered eating behaviors such as preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint. A total of 324 participants completed the demographic questionnaire, the Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire, the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire for women, the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-Revised-Male-Version for men, and Rotter’s Internal-External (I-E) Locus of Control Scale. The results of this study found, as predicted, that Caucasians reported higher internalization, higher body dissatisfaction, and higher preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint than African Americans. This study showed no differences regarding men’s and women’s internalization or body dissatisfaction but did reveal that women reported higher preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint than men. Regarding age, this study found that age did not predict internalization, body dissatisfaction, or preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint.