The Tonle Sap is the largest and most important natural wetland in Southeast Asia. It covers an area of more than 15,000 km2 with a unique mosaic of natural and agricultural floodplain habitats that coexist with the largest fishery in the Mekong Basin. Accelerating hydropower development and climate change, however, are altering the Mekong’s hydrology, which could negatively affect downstream ecosystems. The Tonle Sap is facing a two-fold problem. First, the link between its hydrology and ecosystem properties is not well understood. Second, potential ecological changes caused by future hydrological disruptions related to hydropower and climate change are unknown. Thus, the main objective of this thesis was to quantify how alterations to the Mekong hydrology could affect the Tonle Sap ecosystem. The following studies were performed to addressed the objective: (1) an assessment of landscape patterns using geographical information and remote sensing tools; (2) an assessment of habitat patterns based on field surveys of water, vegetation, and soils; (3) ecosystem function modelling to simulate net primary production (NPP) as a function of water quantity, sediments, and habitat type; and (4) fauna habitat modelling linking the results from the assessment of landscape patterns to fauna species. The assessment of landscape patterns revealed a distinct relationship between inundation and vegetation. Habitats in the Tonle Sap were divided into five groups based on annual flood duration, as well as physiognomic factors and human activity: (1) open water, (2) gallery forest, (3) seasonally flooded habitats, (4) transitional habitats, and (5) rainfed habitats. Large habitat shifts could occur as a result of hydropower development scenarios by the 2030s; areas optimal for gallery forest could decrease by 82% from baseline conditions, whereas areas of rainfed habitats could increase by 10-13 % (813-1061 km2). The assessment of habitat patterns demonstrated that despite the complexity and intense human use of this ecosystem, the flood-pulse is the underlying driver of habitat characteristics by (1) determining inundation depth and duration; (2) creating the main soils gradient; (3) limiting the area cleared for agriculture; (4) influencing vegetation structure and water quality; and (5) shaping the composition of plant species. The ecosystem function model was used to estimate a reduction of 9-39% in annual NPP caused by different scenarios of hydropower development and/or climate change during 2032-2042. Cumulative impacts from hydropower would disrupt NPP to a greater extent than climate change. The fauna habitat model revealed that species richness was greatest in the gallery forests and seasonally flooded habitats. Animals that permanently reside in or that rely on these habitats to complete essential life-history stages would be the most affected by future changes. This thesis provides the first quantitative formulation that directly links fundamental components of the Tonle Sap ecosystem to its flood-pulse hydrology. It also provides a comprehensive assessment of the impacts of expected hydrological alterations. Hydropower is expected to bring more abrupt and distinct ecological alterations than climate change in future decades. Relative aerial changes to the gallery forests are expected to be greater than in other habitats. A decline of the Tonle Sap’s ecosystem services will occur if appropriate measures are not implemented. These measures include mitigating hydropower alterations, conserving natural habitats in areas that are likely to remain hydrologically undisturbed, restoring natural habitats in projected areas for optimal growth, and optimizing agricultural practices in the floodplain. Research findings from this thesis focused on the Tonle Sap, but given the fundamental commonalities between this system and other large floodplains, the information presented is highly informative to other large flood-pulse driven systems around the globe.

Drought-induced tree mortality is an emerging global phenomenon that appears related to climate change and rising temperatures in particular, and may be an early indication of vegetation change. However, vegetation response to climate change is uncertain, particularly for future novel climates. Notably, no current models of vegetation change attempt to mechanistically predict plant mortality, and in particular, mortality of trees, which exerts strong influences on ecological function. Resolving uncertainties surrounding the physiological mechanism and temperatures sensitivity of tree mortality is a current challenge in global change ecology. The objectives of this dissertation were to 1) consider tree mortality consequences for earth system processes related to carbon, water, and energy exchange that include climate regulation; 2) explore tree mortality effects on the water cycle by developing hypotheses and research needs; 3) quantify the temperature sensitivity of drought-induced tree mortality and gain insight into the physiological mechanism of mortality; 4) quantify the relationships among temperature, stored carbohydrate resources, and gas exchange to further elucidate physiological tree mortality mechanisms; and 5) quantify the sensitivity of two species of pine seedlings to progressively elevated temperatures and relate mortality to the effect of temperature on carbon metabolism. Major findings of this dissertation relate to the temperature sensitivity, physiological mechanism, and implications of tree mortality. Assessment of the potential consequences of tree mortality for earth system processes documented the contrasting influences of tree mortality on the terrestrial C cycle and land-surface energy exchange, the balance of which will determine the net effects on climate regulation (Appendix A). Following a survey of the ecohydrology literature, thresholds for tree mortality to cause watershed changes were hypothesized at ~20% loss of canopy cover, ~500 mm of annual precipitation, and whether flows are snowmelt dominated (Appendix B). Elevated temperature (~+4°C) accelerated tree mortality by 28% during experimental drought, a difference related to cumulative respiration dynamics in piñon pine (Appendix C). Stored carbohydrate resources were declined during lethal drought but were not entirely depleted prior to mortality (Appendix D). Seedlings exhibited progressive declines in time-to mortality with increased temperatures, a response related to C metabolism (Appendix E).

Dryland ecosystems provide a unique opportunity to study the effects of water limitation on ecosystem activity. The sensitivity of these systems to small inputs of moisture is well-documented, but the expression of water limitation in terms of carbon dioxide flux between the ecosystem and atmosphere remains unclear. Applying a simple conceptual approach to soil moisture dynamics, patterns in carbon flux become clear. Release of carbon dioxide via respiration is primarily driven by moisture in the shallow soil, and differences in respiration rates among plant functional types are only evident after controlling for soil moisture. Alternatively, carbon uptake by a semiarid shrubs ecosystem is largely driven by the availability of deep soil moisture. This link to deep soil moisture improves spatial scaling of gross and net carbon uptake using remote sensing data. Lateral redistribution of moisture on the landscape connects readily observed physical features, namely topography, to ecosystem function, but redistribution is generally not considered in carbon models. A simple runoff scheme coupled to a conceptual model for carbon flux demonstrates the high degree of spatial heterogeneity in carbon dioxide flux resulting from moisture redistribution. The importance of redistribution in carbon modeling is highlighted by interannual variability in modeled carbon fluxes under different rainfall characteristics (event size, event duration, interstorm duration). The links between hydrology and ecology across spatial scales become clearer when topographically-based moisture distribution is used as an organizing variable. In all, this research identifies new avenues for research where moisture dynamics are of central interest in dryland ecohydrology.

<p>A critical consequence of agriculturally managed lands is the <a></a>transport of nutrients and sediment to fresh water systems, which is ultimately responsible for a range of adverse impacts on human and environmental health. In the U.S. alone, over half of streams and rivers are classified as impaired, with agriculture as the primary contributor. To address deterioration of water quality, there is a need for reliable tools and mathematical models to monitor and predict impacts to water quantity and quality. Soil water content is a key variable in representing environmental systems, linking and driving hydrologic, climate, and biogeochemical cycles; however, the influence of soil water simulations on model predictions is not well characterized, particularly for water quality. Moreover, while soil moisture estimation is the focus of multiple remote sensing missions, defining its potential for use in water quality models remains an open question. The goal of this research is to test whether updating model soil water process representation or model soil water estimates can provide better overall predictive confidence in estimates of both soil moisture and water quality. A widely-used ecohydrologic model, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), was used to evaluate four objectives: 1) investigate the potential of a gridded version of the SWAT model for use with similarly gridded, remote sensing data products, 2) determine the sensitivity of model predictions to changes in soil water content, 3) implement and test a more physically representative soil water percolation algorithm, and 4) perform practical data assimilation experiments using remote sensing data products, focusing on the effects of soil water updates on water quality predictions. With the exception of the first objective, model source code was modified to investigate the relative influence and effect of soil water on overall model predictions. Results suggested that use of the SWAT grid model was currently not viable given practical computational constraints. While the advantages provided by the gridded approach are likely useful for small scale watersheds (< 500 km2), the spatial resolution necessary to run the simulation was too coarse, such that many of the benefits of the gridded approach are negated. Sensitivity tests demonstrated a strong response of model predictions to perturbations in soil moisture. Effects were highly process dependent, where water quality was particularly sensitive to changes in both transport and transformation processes. Model response was reliant upon a default thresholding behavior that restricts subsurface flow and redistribution processes below field capacity. An alternative approach that removed this threshold and keyed processes to relative saturation showed improvement by allowing a more realistic range of soil moisture and a reduction of flushing behavior. This approach was further extended to test against baseline satellite data assimilation experiments; however, did not conclusively outperform the original model simulations. Nevertheless, overall, data assimilation experiments using a remote sensing surface soil moisture data product from the NASA Soil Moisture Active/Passive (SMAP) mission were able to correct for a dry bias in the model simulations and reduce error. Data assimilation updates significantly impacted flow predictions, generally by increasing the dominant contributing flow process. This led to substantial differences between two test sites, where landscape and seasonal characteristics moderated the impact of data assimilation updates to hydrologic, water quality, and crop yield predictions. While the findings illustrate the potential to improve predictions, continued future efforts to refine soil water process representation and optimize data assimilation with longer time series are needed. The dependence of ecohydrologic model predictions on soil moisture highlighted by this research underscores the importance and challenge of effectively representing a complex, physically-based process. As essential decision support systems rely on modeling analyses, improving prediction accuracy is vital.</p>

Na atualidade, o mundo enfrenta graves problemas de escassez de água decorrentes, principalmente, da degradação da sua qualidade. O conhecimento e a avaliação da qualidade da água são essenciais para o adequado gerenciamento dos recursos hídricos, portanto a água cumpre função de informação, servindo de indicador para o estágio de conservação ou de degradação de um corpo d\'água. O principal objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a qualidade da água de uma bacia urbana localizada na cidade de São Carlos, SP, em termos experimentais e de modelagem matemática, aplicando conceitos ecohidrológicos. Esta avaliação realizou-se por meio da análise de resultados experimentais obtidos em campo, através de quatro campanhas de amostragens de água realizadas em períodos secos (7 de novembro de 2008) e chuvoso ( dias 11, 17 e 18 de março de 2009), estabelecendo para cada campanha três pontos de coletas, uma localizada na bacia do córrego Gregório de 17,3 \'Km POT.2\', e as outras duas ao longo do córrego Monjolinho de 78 \'Km POT.2\'. Foram discutidos os resultados de parâmetros físico-químicos (pH, OD, turbidez, CE, DQO, DBO, fosfato, nitrogênio total, nitrato, nitrito e sólidos totais), biológicos (coliformes termotolerantes e totais) e metais (zinco, chumbo, cádmio, níquel, ferro, manganês, cobre e cromo) presentes na água, bem como foram analisados os efeitos das variações do nível da água e vazão nas características limnológicas dos corpos de água. Os resultados experimentais foram expressos tanto em termos de concentração (mg/L) como de carga específica (kg/ano.ha) a fim de se analisar a variação espacial da concentração e a carga em termos da área de drenagem acumulada e comprimento do rio. Abordou-se uma discussão ecohidrológica realizada com base em análise de quatro dimensões de variáveis: altura hidrométrica, vazão específica, índice de vulnerabilidade e cargas específicas de alguns parâmetros limnológicos. Finalmente, e a fim de avaliar aspectos quali-quantitativos da água para uma bacia urbana através da modelagem matemática, foi utilizado o modelo SWMM. Os resultados experimentais obtidos mostraram que existe extrema variabilidade quantitativa e qualitativa da água, devida principalmente a fatores antropogênicos de poluição, seja pela dinâmica variada de produção de resíduos que são lançados ao ar e à água, seja pela destruição de mecanismos naturais de regulação pela ocupação desordenada do espaço, além de se constatar que as variações do nível da água provocam uma série de transformações nas características limnológicas dos corpos de água causadas por interações entre o meio terrestre e o aquático. Constatou-se a aplicabilidade quali-quantitativa do modelo matemático utilizado, para uma bacia urbana, por meio da calibração dos hidrogramas simulados com hidrogramas observados, e a obtenção de resultados de concentrações de OD, fosfato, sólidos totais, DQO e DBO presentes na água do rio. / Today, the world faces serious problems of water scarcity due mainly to the degradation of its quality. Knowledge and assessment of water quality are essential for proper management of water resources, so the water acts as information function, serving as an indicator of the stage of conservation or degradation of a body of water. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the water quality of an urban basin located in Sao Carlos city, Brazil, in terms of experimental and mathematical modeling, applying concepts of Ecohydrology. This assessment was carried out by the analysis of experimental results obtained in field works, through four sampling campaigns of water realized in a drought period (November 7,2008) and rainy periods (11, 17 and March 18,2009) establishing for each sampling campaign three points, one located in the basin of the stream Gregory of 17,3 \'KM POT.2\', and the other two along the stream Monjolinho of 78 \'KM POT.2\'. The results of physical and chemical parameters (pH, DO, turbidity, EC, COD, BOD, phosphate, total nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite and total solids), biological (fecal and total coliform) and metals (zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, iron, manganese, copper and chromium) in the water, were discussed and analyzed the effect of water level variations and flow in limnological characteristics of water bodies. The experimental results were expressed in terms of concentration (mg/L) as the specific load (kg/year.ha) to analyze the spatial variation of the concentration and the load in terms of cumulative drainage area and river length. lt was approached an Ecohydrology discussion based on analysis of four variable dimensions: hydrometric height, flow specific vulnerability index and specific loads of some limnological parameters. Finally, in order to validate the quali-quantitative aspects of the water for an urban basin through a mathematical model, we used the mathematical model SWMM. The experimental results showed that there is an extreme variability in quantity and quality of the water, primarily due to anthropogenic pollution factors, either for the dynamic range of waste that are thrown into the air and water, or the destruction of the natural mechanisms of regulation by disordered occupation of the space, and besides evidencing that the variations of the changes in water level cause a series of transformations in limnological characteristics of the bodies watermark caused by interactions between the terrestrial and aquatic environments. lt was evidenced the quali-quantitative applicability of the mathematical model used, for an urban basin, through the calibration of the simulated hidrograms with observed hidrograms, and the obtained results of DO, phosphate, total solids, COD and BOD concentrations presents in the water of the river.

Os cursos d\'água são ecossistemas predominantemente heterotróficos com gradiente longitudinal e possuem uma capacidade natural de depurar a matéria orgânica. Entretanto, o lançamento indiscriminado de efluentes ultrapassa a capacidade de suporte do ambiente aquático. O principal objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar como a qualidade da água do rio, em termos experimentais e de modelagem matemática, expressa processos ecohidrológicos nas escalas espaço-temporais, para variações de variáveis físicas, químicas e hidrológicas. O presente estudo foi conduzido através da abordagem de bacias embutidas em seções transversais com áreas incrementais do rio principal e com 17 variáveis analisadas. A aplicação dessa metodologia foi feita para o rio Canha, com área de drenagem total de 126 \'KM POT.2\', situada num bioma subtropical, caracterizando-se por ser uma bacia rural e peri-urbana, localizada no Baixo Ribeira de Iguape - São Paulo. As amostragens foram feitas de setembro de 2006 a março de 2007, em oito seções transversais ao longo do eixo longitudinal do rio Canha. A fim de validar os dados obtidos em campo, um modelo matemático foi utilizado. Deste modo, o modelo 1D de fluxo permanente, o modelo QUAL2K, ajustou-se de maneira satisfatória para a maioria dos dados experimentais. Dados hidráulicos e hidrológicos obtidos em campo foram empregados como condição de contorno para calibração do modelo. Os resultados experimentais e simulados foram expressos tanto em termos de concentração (mg/L) como de cargas específicas (Kg/ano/ha). Esta comparação permite obtenção dos resultados através de um continuum a partir do aumento das escalas, enquanto fornece base para confrontá-los com hipóteses ecohidrológicas. A existência de duas estações distintas, seca e chuvosa, foi observada. Durante a estação chuvosa, observou-se maior diluição dos compostos no corpo d´água, porém em alguns casos, a influência da poluição difusa, devido à lixiviação do solo, foi verificada. As altas vazões tiveram impacto direto sobre as cargas específicas. Na estação seca, para a maioria das variáveis analisadas, evidenciou-se aumento na concentração, sugerindo que períodos de baixa vazão diminuem a capacidade de assimilação do rio. Por exemplo, as concentrações e cargas específicas de nitrogênio total foram altas para ambos os períodos, seco e chuvoso. Quando comparado com o sedimento do rio, ficou evidente que o nitrogênio é originário de fontes não pontuais. / Water courses are predominantly heterotrophic ecosystems with longitudinal gradient and present a capacity of self purification from organic matter. However, the uncontrolled release of effluents can exceed the carrying capacity of the aquatic ecosystem. The main objective of this study was to analyze how the river water quality, in terms of experimental surveys faced with mathematical modeling, envisages the processes evidences of fluvial ecohydrology at various spatiotemporal scales, for either seasonal or longitudinal changes of physic, chemical and hydrological variables. That study was performed through a nested catchment experiment, at cross-sections located at incremental drainage areas of the main river stem of the watershed and with 17 sampled variables. The application of this methodology was made at the Canha river, with a total drainage area of 126 \'KM POT.2\', under subtropical biome, with mixed, rural to peri-urban, land-uses, located at the downstream of the Ribeira de Iguape river basin, sited at State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Four field campaigns were carried with sampling from September, 2006 to July, 2007, in eight cross-sections along the longitudinal axis of the Canha river. In order to cross-validate experimental samples at the river continuum scale with the drainage basin scale, a mathematical model was tested to simulate the water quality dynamics. In spite of 1-D, quasi-state modeling restrictions assumed, the QUAL2K model fits well to experimental data of most of variables surveyed during campaigns. Hydraulic basic samples and hydrological weather data were utilized as initial conditions to feed the mathematical model. Both experimental results and model simulations were expressed as mean river-concentrations (mass/volume) as drainage-area-specific loadings or yield (mass/time.area). The existence of two main seasons, dry and wet, was observed. During the rainy season, the ability to better dilute water loads was outlined; however, on some circumstances, the influence of diffuse pollution entered the stream due to soil leach is also depicted. High-water discharges had a direct impact on area-specific loads. In the dry season and for most of variables, high concentrations were evident, suggesting low-water discharges provoked a loss of the river\'s carrying capacity. For instance, nitrogen concentrations and nitrogen specific loads were quite high during both (dry, wet) periods. When compared to the river bottom sediments, it was evident that nitrogen could be originated from non-point sources outside the riparian areas. The results let the river continuum integrated processes across increasing scales, thereby providing the basis for confronting ecohydrological hypotheses.

O estado da drenagem urbana relaciona-se com o tipo e frequência de cheias, o aumento da poluição difusa e a degradação da qualidade da água. Como parte dos projetos FINEP/MAPLU \"Manejo de águas pluviais em meio urbano\" e FAPESP-IAV \"Assessment of impacts and vulnerability to climate change in Brazil and strategies for adaptation options\", o presente estudo teve por objetivo a análise experimental e a modelagem quali-quantitativa da poluição difusa da drenagem urbana com base ecohidrológica. O estudo foi realizado na área urbana da cidade de São Carlos, em 5 sub-bacias com áreas de drenagem entre 3,4 e 75,6 km², com grau de urbanização entre 0 e 100% e com potencial de escoamento (CN) de 58 a 95. Foram escolhidos 14 pontos para o levantamento de dados experimentais. Avaliando a continuidade dos rios, pode-se observar o impacto da urbanização na redução da qualidade no sentido da nascente à foz, com influência de esgoto. Os intervalos das variáveis de qualidade foram de: 235 a 35.000 kg/km²/ano para DQO; 0 a 7300 kg/km²/ano para DBO; 0 a 1378 kg/km²/ano para N-amoniacal; 0 a 133 kg/km²/ano para Fósforo Total e 7,8 x \'10 POT.4\' a 1,3 x \'10 POT.7\' NMP/km²/ano para coliformes fecais. Os maiores valores para as cargas específicas de DBO, DQO, N-amoniacal, Fósforo Total e Coliformes Fecais foram observados na saída das duas bacias com maior grau de urbanização. Dois indicadores ecohidrológicos foram aqui estudados: o indicador de continuidade X1 relaciona o número de afluentes laterais por unidade de comprimento do rio principal (nº/km), e X18, relacionado à vulnerabilidade, é obtido pelo produto entre velocidade e profundidade da água (m²/s). Em geral, X1 apresentou comportamento variado em cada sub-bacia, enquanto X18 mostrou elevação contínua no sentido de montante a jusante. A modelagem matemática foi realizada com o modelo SWMM no qual foram simulados cenários de macrodrenagem com base em mudanças no uso e ocupação do solo adaptados do Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. Para chuva de projeto com TR = 10 anos foram simulados cenários conforme o macrozoneamento, variando valores de CN, declividade e coeficiente de rugosidade n-Manning. Com horizontes futuros de uso e ocupação para os anos 2025, 2050, 2075 e 2100, os cenários de políticas reativas (\"GO\" e \"OS\") apresentaram vazão máxima específica e carga máxima de poluição específica superiores aos verificados nos cenários pró-ativos (\"AM\" e \"TG\"). Os resultados indicaram que a variabilidade quali-quantitativa da drenagem urbana é afetada não somente por aspectos antropogênicos, como lançamento de esgotos e falta de planejamento, como também por critérios ecohidrológicos mais complexos que sugerem aumentar expressivamente o monitoramento e simulações quali-quantitativas da poluição difusa urbana. / Urban drainage is influenced by the frequency of floods, the increase of diffuse pollution and the degradation of water quality. As a component of research projects FINEP/MAPLU \"Urban water management\" and FAPESP-IAV \"Assessment of impacts and vulnerability to climate change in Brazil and strategies for adaptation options\", this study aimed to do experimental analyses and quali-quantitative modeling of diffuse pollution of urban drainage based on ecohydrology. The study was developed at the urban area of São Carlos, in 5 sub-basins with drainage area between 3,4 and 75,6 km². The urbanization varies between 0 and 100% and the runoff potential (CN) between 58 to 95. Evaluating the continuity of the river, we can notice the impact of urbanization in decreasing water quality from upstream to downstream. Experimental analyses were made in 14 points and the quality variables oscillated between 235 - 35.000 kg/km²/yr to COD; 0 - 7300 kg/km²/yr to BOD; 0 - 1378 kg/km²/yr to N-NH3; 0 - 133 kg/km²/yr to total phosphorus and 7,8 x \'10 POT.4\' - 1,3 x \'10 POT.7\' MPN/km²/yr to fecal coliform. The highest values of specific charge for COD, N-NH3 and phosphorus were observed at sub-basins with high degree of urbanization. Two ecohydrological indicators were estimated. The continuity indicator X1, relates to the number of lateral affluents and to the length of the river. X18 is related to vulnerability, and obtained by the product between velocity and depth. The indicator X1 showed different behaviors in sub-basins, while X18 increased in direction upstream to downstream. Both indicators didnt show a tipical behavior. Mathematical modeling used SWMM model to simulate scenarios of macrodrainage based on land use changes adapted from Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. Rainfall of project with return period of 10 years was used to simulate scenarios in all sub-basins according to the macrozoning, ranging values for runoff potential (CN), slope and rugosity coefficient. The scenarios were simulated with horizons of use and occupation for the years 2025, 2050, 2075 e 2100. The reactive scenarios (\"GO\" and \"OS\") showed maximum specific flow and maximum specific load higher than the proactives scenarios (\"AM\" and \"TG\"). The results indicated that the variability quali-quantitative of an urban drainage is affected by antropogenic factors, like wastewater and lack of planning, and also by ecohydrologic criteria. This fact sugests the necessity of a significant increase in the monitoring and simulations quali-quantitaives of the diffuse pollution in urban drainage.

Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of water and nutrient pools is closely associated with the existence of different plant communities in hydrologically-controlled ecosystems such as the Everglades. These various communities differ in their flooding and fire tolerances as well as nutrient requirements. Upland plant communities are of particular ecological significance since they have high biodiversity and provide habitat to terrestrial fauna, yet comprise less than 10 % of the total area. Restoration and maintenance of such communities requires an understanding of their water and nutrient requirements. Chapter 2 compares water source utilization in hammocks and pine rocklands on the Miami Rock Ridge using stable isotopes of water. Hammocks do not flood, while adjacent pinelands may flood between 2-3 months. In the wet season, hammocks were found to use phosphorus (P) rich soilwater, a local pool of water and nutrients while pineland plants primarily relied upon groundwater, the regional pool. Access to a rich pool of P in the oligotrophic Everglades was associated with higher community-level foliar P concentration in hammocks. However in the dry season, hammocks utilized groundwater, which suggests sensitivity to extended droughts. Chapter 3 compares the hammock (upland or head) and swamp forests (lowland or tail) on tree islands in the Shark River Slough. Uplands were associated with P-rich soilwater uptake in the wet season, with regional water uptake in the dry season. Accordingly, tree island heads are rich in foliar P and thereby P-hotspots in the Everglades. Foliar nutrient concentrations can thus indicate limiting nutrient availability in the Everglades. Chapter 4 looks at how leaf phenology patterns are tied to water and nutrient pools. Leaf fall in ridge hammocks is associated with high foliar carbon isotope values over the dry season, which is not the case for tree island hammocks. However, in some species, high levels of foliar nitrogen are also associated with high foliar C13 values indicating stomatal limitation of photosynthesis. Growing season for most hammock species is the wet season coinciding with high availability of P, as reflected in high foliar P in this season. Linking water sources to foliar nutrients elucidates roles of water and nutrient pools in leading to different plant communities within an ecosystem.

<p>The research was driven by a need to increase the knowledge base concerning wetland ecological responses, as well as to identify and evaluate the factors driving the functioning of the Franschhoek Trust Wetland. An ecohydrological study was undertaken in which vegetation cover, depth to groundwater, water and soil chemistry were monitored at 14 sites along three transects for a 12 month period. The parameters used include temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, chloride, bicarbonate, sulphate, total nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate, nitrite and phosphorus. T-tests and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were used to analyze trends and to express the relationship between abiotic factors and vegetation.</p>

Peatlands are carbon sinks and occupy approximately 13% of Canada’s terrestrial surface of which 0.02% have been harvested for horticultural peat. The extraction of peat from natural peatlands alters the hydrology which affects the growth and survival of Sphagnum the primary peat forming vegetation. Ericaceous shrubs do not require specific water content and soil water pressure conditions for their existence and in cutover peatlands they occupy more than 70% of the surface. Rainfall interception, transpiration and root water uptake and redistribution are processes that alter water availability at the soil surface. The high abundance of shrubs at cutover peatlands will influence the surface water balance and more importantly soil water availability and, inevitably determine the success of Sphagnum reestablishment at the site. This study seeks to understand the role that ericaceous shrubs play in the surface hydrological balance at a cutover site and how these changes impact Sphagnum development. Rainfall interception, transpiration, litter layer evaporation and soil water flux was investigated in the field and lab. Approximately 334 mm of rainfall was measured over the season. The shrub canopy and litter had a maximum storage capacity of 4 and 1.2 mm respectively and intercepted ca. 36.7% (120 mm) of rainfall over the season. The effects of rainfall intensity and duration were more important than gross rainfall in determining the amount of water intercepted by the canopy, while the thickness and mass of the litter layer largely determined the storage capacity. Evapotranspiration from shrubs averaged 2.5 mm day-1 with a total of 211 mm over the season. Transpiration was 68% (142 mm) of total evapotranspiration losses, and represented the greatest water loss from the shrub canopy. From these analyses only 22% (72 mm) of rainfall is available for other soil processes and moss development. The evaporation under a litter cover is lower than bare peat and in the field represents water storage of 17 mm over the season. Reduced water input by litter interception is offset by the increased water storage under the litter. Laboratory analyses of soil water flux under ericaceous shrubs show that water loss under the shrubs was greater than bare peat. Water use under the shrubs was highest between -10 and -30 cm and was ca. 2 times greater than bare peat at the same levels. Volumetric water content (θ) decreased throughout the day and water use by shrubs during the day was twice that at night. The shrubs also maintained θ and soil water pressure (ψ) above the threshold values of 50% and -100 cm, respectively, needed for Sphagnum survival. Based on these analyses the shrubs will be beneficial to Sphagnum reestablishment and survival once the primary water losses have been compensated. I recommend raising the water table above -20 cm. In peatland restoration activities, at this level, water used between -10 and -30 cm can quickly be recharged and surface moisture maintained above threshold by capillary rise helping to offset water loss by interception and transpiration through capillary rise.