1. Realigning rivers is becoming common as a solution to conflicting needs of land development and ecosystem preservation. Although an increasing number of projects are monitored, exactly how these channels develop as functional stream ecosystems is still poorly understood. Mining in the upper catchment of the River Nith (Scotland) required the realignment of 3km (approx.) of river. The engineered channel was designed around sound geomorphological principles of sediment transport and supply with a sinuous planform and pool-riffle sequences along the installed gravel-bed. 2. A comprehensive survey covering biotic and abiotic development was devised and implemented to test models and hypotheses relating to the development riverine habitats over the first three years. 2. Physical habitat development at the reach scale was investigated using fixed-point photography and differential GPS surveys of the thalweg and of cross-sectional form every 100m. This revealed the development of a relatively diverse streambed habitat in response to both the channel slope and planform. However, other than at meander bends where asymmetry developed over several years, little change was observed to the form of the engineered riverbanks. 3. Kick-net surveys of benthic invertebrate communities at 10 sites showed a negative relationship between specific measures of diversity and downstream distance during the early stages of development. (e.g. Richness with chainage at the 6 month stage) but the relationship degrades rapidly and is likely in part to appear as a result of low population densities. 4. Survey of transects through the riparian zone perpendicular to the river indicated that colonisation by vegetation is also related to distance along the realignment but physical habitat and geographical factors play a more dominant role over development (Canonical correspondence analysis of vegetation data in 2007) 5. Many of the indices of diversity for both biotic and abiotic elements of the ecosystem proved ineffective at detecting development at the reach scale. This may be because significant changes occur at a smaller scale than was detected by the surveys. It is likely that greater resolution is required to detect more ecologically meaningful relationships and patterns. 6. Overall study shows constructed realignments can rapidly develop a diverse streambed community within 24 months. Riparian communities are slower to develop because of the slow development of riverbank habitat diversity. Other ecosystem properties such as resilience and connectivity may take much longer.

Invasive plant species threaten native plant communities and inhibit efforts to restore disturbed landscapes. Surface coal mines in the Appalachian Mountains are some of the most disturbed landscapes in North America. Moreover, there is not a comprehensive understanding of the land cover characteristics of post- mined lands in Appalachia. Better information on mined lands' vegetative cover and ecosystem recovery status is necessary for implementation of effective environmental management practices. The invasive autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) is abundant on former coal surface mines, often outcompeting native trees due to its faster growth rate. The frequent revisit time and spatial and spectral resolution of Landsat satellites make Landsat imagery well suited for mapping and characterizing land cover and forest recovery on former coal surface mines. I performed a multitemporal classification using a random forest analysis to map autumn olive on former and current surface coal mines in southwest Virginia. Imagery from the Operational Land Imager on Landsat 8 were used as input data for the study. Calibration and validation data for use in model development were obtained using high-resolution aerial imagery. Results indicate that autumn olive cover is sufficiently dense to enable detection using Landsat imagery on approximately 12.6% of the current and former surface coal mines located in the study area that have been mined since the early 1980s. The classified map produced here had a user's and producer's accuracy of 85.3% and 78.6% respectively for the autumn olive coverage class. Overall accuracy in reference to an independent validation dataset was 96.8%. These results indicate that autumn olive growing on reclaimed coal mines in Virginia and elsewhere in the Appalachian coalfields can be mapped using Landsat imagery. Additionally, autumn olive occurrence is a significant landscape feature on former surface coal mines in the Virginia coalfields. / Master of Science

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Walter K. Dodds / Human-induced stressors such as increased nitrogen (N) loadings, altered watershed land-use, and biodiversity losses are a few of the numerous threats to aquatic systems. Prairie streams experience natural disturbances, such as flooding and desiccation, which may alter responses to anthropogenic stressors. Denitrification, the dissimilatory reduction of NO3- to N gas (N2O or N2), is the only permanent form of N removal from terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems, and is important in mitigating N pollution to streams and downstream waters. Little is known about the relationships between denitrification and riparian prairie vegetation or large consumers. In the first chapter, I used outdoor mesocosms to determine the impact of a grazing minnow, Campostoma anomalum, on structural and functional responses of prairie streams to a simulated flood, focusing on denitrification. In terrestrial ecosystems, grazing can stimulate denitrification, but this has not been studied in streams. Ammonium (NH4+) enrichments, used to simulate fish excretion, alleviated N limitations on denitrification. Both fish and NH4+ affected algal biomass accrual, but only fish affected algal filament lengths and particulate organic matter. In a second experiment, I examined the impact of woody vegetation expansion, a primary threat to tallgrass prairie, on riparian and benthic denitrification. Expansion of woody vegetation in these grasslands is due primarily to altered fire regimes, which historically inhibited woody vegetation growth. To determine the effect of woody vegetation expansion on benthic and riparian denitrification, woody vegetation was removed from the riparian zone of a grazed and an ungrazed watershed. Both soil and benthic denitrification rates from this removal buffer were compared to rates in grassy or woody riparian zones. Riparian soil denitrification was highly seasonal, with greatest rates occurring during early spring, and rates being low throughout the remainder of the year. Benthic denitrification was also temporally variable but did not exhibit seasonal trends, suggesting benthic denitrification is driven by factors other than water temperature. Removal of woody vegetation stimulated soil and benthic denitrification rates over rates found in naturally vegetated riparian zones. Elevated N loadings will continue to affect aquatic ecosystems, and these effects may be exacerbated by biodiversity losses or changing riparian vegetation.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Áreas alagadas são importantes devido à grande biodiversidade que sustentam e aos serviços ambientais gerados pela sua conservação. Essas áreas, quando dominadas por macrófitas, tendem a suportar grande biodiversidade e assumir grande valor de conservação. Assim, o monitoramento do estabelecimento deste importante componente do ecossistema durante um projeto de recuperação de ecossistemas é importante para avaliar o sucesso da sua recuperação. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estimar aquantidade de biomassa por área acumulada em um ecossistema ao longo de um gradiente de recuperação. Através da classificação não supervisionada gerada a partir de de imagens de satélite de alta resolução (GeoEye-1) e amostragem destrutiva foram estimadas quantidades de biomassa por área em três alagados em recuperação na Reserva Ecológica Guapiaçú. A classificação não supervisionada se mostrou uma ferramenta acurada e eficiente no mapeamento de classes de vegetação. Os alagados estudados apresentam uma taxa de acúmulo de carbono anual estimada em 1,12 MgC.hec-1 atingindo um máximo de 5.55 MgC.hec-1 no terceiro ano. Adicionalmente, foi observada uma correlação negativa entre biomassa e profundidade. / Wetlands are important due to the substantial biodiversity they maintain and for the ecosystem services they provide. These areas when colonized by macrophytes tend to support great biodiversity and assume great value for conservation. Therefore monitoring the establishment of these important ecosystem features during the recovery of reconstructed wetlands is made necessary to evaluate the success of such projects. Here, the main objective was to estimate the amount of biomass accumulated by the macrophyte growth during the first 6 years of a wetland recovery project. From unsupervised classification generated from high resolution satellite imagery and destructive field sampling the accumulated biomass of macrophyte beds was estimated in 3 reconstructed wetlands at Reserva Ecológica Guapiaçú, Rio de Janeiro. Unsupervised classification was shown to be an effective and accurate tool for mapping vegetation classes. The studied wetlands showed an annual carbon accumulation rate of 1,12 MgC.hec-1 with apparent decrease in rate over time and with the maximum accumulated biomass of 5,55 MgC.hec-1 in the third year. A negative correlation between water depth and biomass was observed.

Los análisis morfométricos realizados en la cuenca del Arroyo Grande indican que la misma tiene forma alargada, oval y oblonga, con pendientes abruptas en las cabeceras y moderadas en la zona de valle y desembocadura, con una superficie de 129,5 km². La vegetación esta compuesta por pastizales, turberas y bosques de Nothofagus pumilio y N. betuloides factibles de ser aprovechados comercialmente. La cuenca presenta una degradación de los ambientes naturales debido al impacto de especies exóticas, el aprovechamiento forestal no planificado y el turismo no regulado. Los principales problemas encontrados son la falta de planificación en el uso del suelo y la falta de manejo en áreas naturales frágiles. A través de una ordenación en la cuenca, se analizaron alternativas de manejo para aumentar la eficiencia de las actividades productivas tradicionales. Es necesaria la exclusión del ganado, debido al impacto sobre la regeneración del bosque y a la introducción de especies exóticas, concentradas en los sitios de pastoreo. Asimismo se propone la utilización del método de retención dispersa y agregada para el manejo forestal, siendo su objetivo principal mantener la biodiversidad del bosque dentro de niveles aceptables, logrando una posibilidad de 1.082,2 m³/año, siendo suficiente para abastecer un aserradero. Se plantea el ordenamiento de la actividad turística y el restablecimiento de las funciones del ecosistema de turberas explotadas mediante técnicas de recuperación específicas.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Áreas alagadas são importantes devido à grande biodiversidade que sustentam e aos serviços ambientais gerados pela sua conservação. Essas áreas, quando dominadas por macrófitas, tendem a suportar grande biodiversidade e assumir grande valor de conservação. Assim, o monitoramento do estabelecimento deste importante componente do ecossistema durante um projeto de recuperação de ecossistemas é importante para avaliar o sucesso da sua recuperação. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estimar aquantidade de biomassa por área acumulada em um ecossistema ao longo de um gradiente de recuperação. Através da classificação não supervisionada gerada a partir de de imagens de satélite de alta resolução (GeoEye-1) e amostragem destrutiva foram estimadas quantidades de biomassa por área em três alagados em recuperação na Reserva Ecológica Guapiaçú. A classificação não supervisionada se mostrou uma ferramenta acurada e eficiente no mapeamento de classes de vegetação. Os alagados estudados apresentam uma taxa de acúmulo de carbono anual estimada em 1,12 MgC.hec-1 atingindo um máximo de 5.55 MgC.hec-1 no terceiro ano. Adicionalmente, foi observada uma correlação negativa entre biomassa e profundidade. / Wetlands are important due to the substantial biodiversity they maintain and for the ecosystem services they provide. These areas when colonized by macrophytes tend to support great biodiversity and assume great value for conservation. Therefore monitoring the establishment of these important ecosystem features during the recovery of reconstructed wetlands is made necessary to evaluate the success of such projects. Here, the main objective was to estimate the amount of biomass accumulated by the macrophyte growth during the first 6 years of a wetland recovery project. From unsupervised classification generated from high resolution satellite imagery and destructive field sampling the accumulated biomass of macrophyte beds was estimated in 3 reconstructed wetlands at Reserva Ecológica Guapiaçú, Rio de Janeiro. Unsupervised classification was shown to be an effective and accurate tool for mapping vegetation classes. The studied wetlands showed an annual carbon accumulation rate of 1,12 MgC.hec-1 with apparent decrease in rate over time and with the maximum accumulated biomass of 5,55 MgC.hec-1 in the third year. A negative correlation between water depth and biomass was observed.