The world is increasingly urbanizing with approximately 54% of the world population livingin cities (Langemeyer, 2015). This number is expected to rise to 66% by 2050 (UN, 2014),which means that urbanized areas will expand in size with an additional 2.5 billion new urbaninhabitants (Langemeyer, 2015). Studies show that urban expansion has the effect ofdecreasing, fragmenting, and isolating natural patches by altering the size, shape, andinterconnectivity of the natural landscape (Ricketts, 2001; Alberti, 2005). The consequentloss and degradation of urban and peri-urban green/blue space and elements couldadversely affect ecosystem and its services as well as human health and well-being.Through literature review, the concepts of urban ecosystem services and green-blueinfrastructures are introduced, as well as the main design principles for green-blueinfrastructures. The thesis also briefly introduces urban policies and implementation throughcase study with a focus on Malmö city. Meanwhile, the thesis discusses how the planninginstruments of Green Space Factor and Green Points are used in the Bo01 project and howthey contributed to promote ecosystem services in built environment.Through literature review and case study, the aim of this thesis is to collect design solutionsthat can be used as inspiration and guidance to promote urban ecosystem services throughgreen-blue infrastructures in built environments at different scales.

The world is increasingly urbanizing with approximately 54% of the world population livingin cities (Langemeyer, 2015). This number is expected to rise to 66% by 2050 (UN, 2014),which means that urbanized areas will expand in size with an additional 2.5 billion new urbaninhabitants (Langemeyer, 2015). Studies show that urban expansion has the effect ofdecreasing, fragmenting, and isolating natural patches by altering the size, shape, andinterconnectivity of the natural landscape (Ricketts, 2001; Alberti, 2005). The consequentloss and degradation of urban and peri-urban green/blue space and elements couldadversely affect ecosystem and its services as well as human health and well-being.Through literature review, the concepts of urban ecosystem services and green-blueinfrastructures are introduced, as well as the main design principles for green-blueinfrastructures. The thesis also briefly introduces urban policies and implementation throughcase study with a focus on Malmö city. Meanwhile, the thesis discusses how the planninginstruments of Green Space Factor and Green Points are used in the Bo01 project and howthey contributed to promote ecosystem services in built environment.Through literature review and case study, the aim of this thesis is to collect design solutionsthat can be used as inspiration and guidance to promote urban ecosystem services throughgreen-blue infrastructures in built environments at different scales.

This study explores the understanding of the concept ecosystem services (ES) within Swedish land developers with a focus on knowledge, drivers and interests, practical experience, as well as challenges land developers experience for the implementation of solutions providing ecosystem services in projects. The research is based on interviews to representatives of eight land developers operating in Sweden and completed by the interviews of representatives from two consultancy companies. In addition to this, tools, methods and certifications systems available in the Swedish context for working with ES in detailed planning, land allocation, and further steps of a development project are analyzed from a user’s perspective based on a literature study and interviews results. The results show an important heterogeneity among developers, with different levels of knowledge and experience depending on the type of developer. Build and manage, well-established companies with a sound sustainability policy appear to be forerunners, whereas size, type of buildings managed, geographical implantation or private/public ownership showed little relevance. Both proactive and reactive attitudes towards ES were detected, the role of municipalities setting ES requirements being a major driver for ES implementation, together with the company’s sustainability policy and business opportunities. The fragmented panorama of available tools for ES implementation and the lack of available inventories explains the little knowledge and experience developers showed about existing tools. If GYF and ESTER tools are used, there is as of today a lack of a reference tool at national level, setting recognized standards for ES implementation. The research results suggest a need for a nationally recognized reference tool, simple to use, serving as a basis for dialogue, allowing scenario comparison at early phases, and including a cost perspective. Certification systems appear as a possible way forward, but further and comprehensive integration of the concept is still needed. / Denna studie undersöker förståelsen av begreppet ekosystemtjänster (ES) bland svenska fastighetsutvecklare, med fokus på kunskap, drivkrafter och intressen, praktisk erfarenhet, samt utmaningar fastighetsutvecklare upplever för implementering av lösningar som tillhandahåller ekosystemtjänster i projekt. Forskningen bygger på intervjuer med representanter för åtta byggherrar som är verksamma i Sverige och kompleteras av intervjuer med representanter från två konsultföretag. Utöver detta analyseras verktyg, metoder och certifieringssystem i svenskt sammanhang för att arbeta med ES i detaljplanering, markfördelning och ytterligare steg i utvecklingsprojekt. Analysen utförs utifrån en användares perspektiv baserat på en litteraturstudie och intervjuresultat. Resultaten visar en stor heterogenitet bland fastighetsutvecklare, med olika kunskapsnivåer och erfarenheter beroende på typ av utvecklare. Företag som bygger och förvaltar, väletablerade företag med en sund hållbarhetspolicy verkar vara föregångare, medan företags storlek, område, typ av byggnader som hanteras, eller ägandeform (privat/offentlig) visade låg relevans. Både proaktiva och reaktiva attityder till ES upptäcktes. Kommunernas roll, som ställer ES-krav är en av de viktigaste drivkraft för ES- implementering, tillsammans med företagets hållbarhetspolicy och affärsmöjligheter. Det fragmenterade panorama över tillgängliga verktyg för ES-implementering och bristen på verktygs referenslista förklarar den lilla kunskap och erfarenhet utvecklare visade om befintliga verktyg. Även om GYF- ESTER- verktyg delvis används, saknas det idag ett referensverktyg på nationell nivå som sätter erkända standarder för ES- implementering. Forskningresultaten tyder på ett behov av ett nationellt erkänt referensverktyg, enkelt att använda, som ger en bas för dialog, vilket möjliggör jämförelse av scenarier i tidiga faser och som inkluderar ett kostnadsperspektiv. Certifieringsystem framstår som en möjlig väg framåt, men ytterligare och omfattande integration av begreppet ES behövs fortfarande.

Land use/land cover (LULC) plays a vital role in the provision of ecosystem services. Changing natural vegetation to agricultural or urban uses affectss the socio-economic dynamics of the surrounding populations. Changing land use may also result in the impairment of ecosystem services. Rural and urban communities have different realities and perceptions on the importance of ecosystem services, which tend to vary by economic, generational, social, and cultural factors. This study assesses the subjective value of people in urban and rural communities on provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services. A quantitative and qualitative survey using interviews and spatial analysis with GIS is used to study ecosystem services. The survey evaluates the values, perceptions, and benefits of ecosystems in urban and rural regions. Environmental conservation plans that have been implemented on a national level and the traditional ecological activities that local communities play a crucial role in the governance of ecosystem services. There is a need to understand the effectiveness and awareness o actions resulting from governance regimes to be both applicable and useful in protecting ecosystem services in fragile and diverse ecosystems such as Ecuador.

The main goals of this study were to document the structural and functional recovery of differently restored areas, to understand better the relationship between the two, and to determine which types of measurements are best for assessing restoration success. To address these questions, an experimental system was created through topsoil removal and subsequent restoration in a blocked, completely randomized design using two levels of soil amendment (with or without 10 kg of leaf mulch per m2) and three levels of seeding treatment (no seed, a standard reclamation mix, and an alternative, wildflower dominated reclamation mix). All measurements were designed to document responses due to restoration treatment in comparison to adjacent, undisturbed, reference sites. Vegetation structure in amended sites, as measured by total vegetation cover and species richness, recovered to levels similar to references within the two years of the study. Plant community composition did not develop similarity to references in any experimental treatments. Both soil amendment and seeding type affected cellulose decomposition rates, with amended plots showing higher decomposition rates than unamended, and seeded plots exhibiting higher rates than unseeded. Enzyme activities were largely determined by soil amendment, but the reference plots consistently had higher enzymatic activity. Amended sites exhibited significant increases over time in soil respiration, reaching or surpassing the rates observed in reference areas. Methane oxidation rates were generally increased in disturbed plots compared to undisturbed references due to increased atmospheric diffusion into the soil. Amended areas exhibited depressed rates relative to unamended, and seeding level had no significant effect on methane oxidation. Over all measurements, restoration of ecosystem function was most facilitated by the addition of the soil amendment. Seeding treatment significantly altered the resultant plant community, which may have substantial, long-term consequences for succession. The inclusion of functional parameters into restoration assessment provides for better overall information concerning ecosystem performance and may add to the ability to predict long-term success of restoration efforts. / Ph. D.

The rapid expansion of urban systems in both area and population represents the most significant landuse/landcover change occurring in the world today. Urbanization is often accompanied by increasing environmental degradation. This degradation is related to stormwater runoff, air temperatures greater than surrounding rural areas, increased air and water pollution, losses of vegetated lands, and lack of access to sufficient and healthy foods in lower-income areas. Urban agriculture (UA), a practice long established in previous eras but neglected for many decades, can mediate such concerns by providing greenspaces to improve ecosystem services. Successful practice of UA requires recognition of interactions between social and environmental patterns. Neglect of these interactions leads to failure in spatially integrating social and environmental dimensions of the urban landscape, limiting the success of UA. This study investigates siting of UA within Roanoke, Virginia, a compact urban region characterized by social and environmental conditions that can be addressed by effective siting and practice of UA. This research takes a broader perspective than prior studies on UA and urban greenspaces. It proposes innovative applications of geospatial technologies for urban assessment. Studies on UA have typically focused on food insecurity, while studies on greenspaces focus on parks and tree canopy cover, without investigating interactions that promote synergies between these two efforts. Research over the past few years is now recognizing potential contributions for urban agriculture to alleviate environmental issues such as stormwater runoff, soil infertility, and the urban heat island effect. Little of this research has been devoted to the actual siting of urban agriculture to specifically alleviate both socio-economic and environmental issues. This research applies geospatial technologies to evaluate spatial patterns characterizing both environmental and socio-economic disparities within the City of Roanoke, Virginia. This approach has identified specific locations that are open and available for urban agriculture, and has appraised varying levels of socio-economic and environmental parameters. This research identified, at the census block group level, areas with varying levels of degradation. Thus, those locations in which a new urban agriculture greenspace can contribute to both socio-economic and environmental reparation. This research has identified spatial dimensions in which UA will assist in restoring ecosystem services to guide various food production activities. These results can be generalized to other urban locations and contribute to efficient use of urban land and space, improving the three pillars of worldwide sustainability – economic, environment, and social. / Ph. D.

Cooperative Extension produces public value through educational programming that benefits the greater community. Forests provide numerous valuable benefits to society through the provision of ecosystem services. Cooperative Extension educational programming positively impacts forest owners, who in turn conduct actions that enhance ecosystem services. A heretofore unrecognized relationship exists between Cooperative Extension and ecosystem services that provides opportunity for mutual benefit. Applying ecosystem services values to Extension natural resources-related programmatic outcomes through benefit transfer provides an avenue for Extension to make significant advancements in monetizing public value. Beyond serving simply as a source of financial justification, however, linkages with ecosystem services also provide Cooperative Extension with opportunities to improve the design and delivery of educational programs, do a better job articulating an array of public benefits resulting from agency accomplishments, and optimize allocation of sparse resources and Extension efforts. This dissertation thoroughly explores these concepts by providing an overview of: Cooperative Extension in general and Extension forestry more specifically; public value in an Extension context; ecosystem services; ecosystem services valuation; benefit transfer, and; connections between these diverse topics. In addition, benefit transfer principles are applied to an existing Extension evaluation data set in attempt to monetize Cooperative Extension's impact, lessons learned are explored, and the Cooperative Extension public value discussion is re-framed as one aspect of overall continuous organizational improvement. / Ph. D.

Climate and human activities impact the timing and quantity of streamflow and floods in different ways, with important implications for people and aquatic environments. Impacts of landscape changes on streamflow and floods are known, but few studies have explored the magnitude, duration and count of floods the landscape can influence. Understanding how floods are influenced by landscape structure provides insight into how, why and where floods have changed over time, and facilitates mapping the capacity of watersheds to regulate floods. In this study, I (1) compared nine flood-return periods of 31 watersheds across North Carolina and Virginia using long-term hydrologic records, (2) examined temporal trends in precipitation, stream flashiness, and the count, magnitude and duration of small and large floods for the same watersheds, and (3) developed a methodology to map the biophysical and technological capacity of eight urban watersheds to regulate floods. I found (1) floods with return periods ≤ 10 years can be managed by manipulating landscape structure, (2) precipitation and floods have decreased in the study watersheds while stream flashiness has increased between 1991 and 2013, (3) mapping both the biophysical and technological features of the landscape improved previous efforts of representing an urban landscape's capacity to regulate floods. My results can inform researchers and managers on the effect of anthropogenic change and management responses on floods, the efficacy of current strategies and policies to manage water resources, and the spatial distribution of a watershed's capacity to regulate flooding at a high spatial resolution. / Master of Science

Urbanization is an intensive form of habitat disturbance associated with detrimental effects on biodiversity. However, few studies have investigated its effects on the number, identity and structure of species interactions while considering seasonal fluctuations in communities. Avian seed dispersal is a vital ecosystem service, and the interplay of urbanization and seasonality may impact seed dispersal in ways not predicted by either factor alone. In this study, we evaluate the effects of urbanization and season on avian seed dispersal networks in the southern Appalachians. We found that the number and richness of interactions was unaffected, but the identity of interacting bird species differed based on landscape type. We also found that species strength was impacted by urbanization and season, but other network metrics were unaffected. These results suggest that species identity should be considered when making comparisons of seed dispersal networks, as it may reveal differences between networks with implications for dispersal quality and future plant communities.

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is a global carbon trading program intent on mitigating or reversing carbon emissions from forestry in the global south. REDD+ was negotiated at the 2005 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and is coordinated by the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), administered by the World Bank Group. In this project, I explore REDD+ activity in Costa Rica, drawing on Michel Foucault's concept of governmentality. Costa Rica became a participant in the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility in July of 2008. Since then, indigenous peoples throughout the country have contested the program. This project is a single-case study of the Bribri contestation of REDD+ schemes, one of the larger indigenous communities in Costa Rica. Bribri argue that REDD+ disrespects their worldview and further endangers their local rights to land and forestry. This project argues that REDD+ and Bribri have different perceptions of nature, enabling disagreement on REDD+ goals. Whereas REDD+ perceives nature as commodifiable for the purposes of neoliberal climate policies, Bribri express a spiritual, harmonious relationship with nature. I conclude by noting that REDD+ can pose negative implications for indigenous life and culture. This is not only because REDD+ draws external and domestic actors to land and forestry for incentive-based purposes. But also because REDD+ defines 'rightful behavior' among forestry resources, challenging indigenous conceptions of environmental management. However, the Bribri are resisting REDD+ imposition and, particularly, the program's external governing of indigenous behavior amongst forests. / Master of Arts