This study is set in the context of the acknowledged debate, highlighted by the work of Lunzer and Gardner's Schools Council project (1979), concerning the theoretical issue of whether reading comprehension is a unitary competence or consists of identifiable discrete subskills. This long- standing polarised theoretical debate can be traced as far back as the sixties and seventies in the position taken by reading experts such as Spache and Spache (1969), Davis (1971) and Thorndike (1973). Spache and Spache and Thorndike concluded that reading comprehension was a unitary competence, not consisting of separate skills that can be practised in isolation. On the other hand, Davis viewed reading comprehension as composed of separate identifiable skills and abilities. The polarised arguments pose a question as to the nature of reading comprehension. Is there such a thing as discrete reading comprehension sub-skills that can be built up hierarchically and can promote the understanding of texts? With the question in mind this study set out to test whether reading comprehension is a unitary competence of sub-skills or one that can be broken down into separate sub-skills. The research involved the rigorous testing of a series of reading comprehension tests in two languages using four texts taken from the work of Lunzer and Gardner (1979). The texts were modified to suit the socio-cultural context of the students. All of the chosen texts were translated into Bahasa (L1) which is the mother-tongue of the students. In principle, the focus of the study in Part I is centred on replicating the work of Lunzer and Gardner (1979) in some selected Malaysian primary and secondary schools. It seeks to understand whether the main hypothesis holds that reading comprehension is unitary in nature and cannot be broken down into a number of distinct subskills. A selected 300 primary school pupils aged 12 were required to read and answer four comprehension tests written in L1. Another selected 150 secondary school students aged 15 were required to perform the same tasks on material written in L2. Each test has about 30 comprehension questions which are divided into eight categories of subskills. The two groups produced a total of 1,636 valid comprehension tests which were marked rigorously. Factor analysing the data yielded a number of important findings concerning whether reading comprehension subskills are unitary or hierarchic in nature. These findings may suggest some recommendations for improving reading for learning across the Malaysian primary and secondary schools curriculum. In Part I the outlined five chapters discuss the background information which led to the testing of the 450 students, the related literature review, the chosen research design and analysis, the findings and the research implications for the Part II study. The study reported in Part II is an extension of the work done in Part I, in that the remaining five chapters explore the justification of conducting the indepth interviews, the review of the related literature, the design of the interview, the findings and the educational implications of the study. This part explores the reading comprehension strategies that were used by the students in answering the comprehension questions. The second study was successfully made during the summer of 1994. A total of 16 students aged 15 were selected from several secondary schools in Johor Bahru, the capital state of Johor, Malaysia … … The thesis ends with a discussion of the implications from both studies especially for the reading curriculum, instruction, pedagogy, classroom practice and future research.

The thesis explores the potentially problematic nature of transitions and the implications for the way students engage with (and disengage from) the process of learning. Although studies in the field of student experience, learning approaches and transitions have examined the relation between learning and contextual factors, there has not been an in-depth examination of the ways students cope with the changes at personal and academic level they are confronted with at university. This study draws initially upon the theories of Lave & Wenger to develop a theoretical model for conceptualising students' experiences of learning at university. The study is therefore able to provide additional insights into the way individual identity; institutional communities and the interaction between the personal and the social elements can play a role in students' experiences of their transitions to and in university. This is developed with a very specific focus on transitions from first to second year study at university. In order to explore the nature and range of transitions that students experience, the methodological design of the study is based upon a qualitative methodology including classroom observations, semi-structured interviews of nine undergraduate students along with non-participant observation of two modules within one pre-1992 HE institution. The data are analysed to explore the research participants' perceptions, meanings and practices as these are negotiated and enacted in the various communities before and after their transition to and within university. The research findings suggest that the process of transitions involves a rich interplay between roles, relationships and participation. As students strive to develop higher order skills and become part of their communities, they seem to be confronted with changes in perceptions, positions and attitudes. These changes can be seen as deriving from the interactions between students and their institutional and wider communities. In essence, therefore, the thesis offers a model for understanding students' transitions to and within university. This model suggests that underpinning students' experiences at university are a range of transitions within various communities that influence the way identities, knowledge, and practices are constructed.

<p> This qualitative case study explored educator beliefs and behaviors for the tenets of trauma-informed care and if those beliefs or behaviors change in relation to years of service or specialized training. Ecological systems theory guided the theoretical approach. Review of historical research revealed a gap in linking trauma-informed care into the ecological system surrounding the traumatized child in the educational setting. Research questions asked what educator beliefs and behaviors are reflective of the tenets of trauma-informed care, and if those beliefs or behaviors change in relation to years of service or specialized training for educators. Data were collected from eight educators from two Arizona schools using questionnaires, individual interviews and field notes. Results were analyzed using inductive thematic coding and descriptive reporting. Interview data revealed six major themes including: types and causes of problem behavior including withdrawal, physical and verbal behavioral disruptions; identifying and responding to trauma; teacher identity; and educator training. Questionnaire outcomes showed respondents scores averaged 65, out of a possible score of 90. Major findings of the study indicated participants broadly reflected some tenets of trauma-informed care. Divergence in responses was consistent, indicating a shared set of educational beliefs at odds with certain aspects of trauma-informed care. Participants felt increased experience equipped them to manage disruptive behavior better. Participants lacked professional development in behavior management and trauma. Participants unanimously expressed a strong desire for such training to be made available.</p>

<p> The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between levels of burnout, exhaustion, cynicism, and professional efficacy experienced by student affairs professionals at public institutions compared to private higher education institutions in Missouri. The specific problem is that it is unknown if there is a relationship between institutional type and burnout among student affairs professionals. The participants were Missouri College Personnel Association (MoCPA) members who work at public and private higher education institutions in Missouri. There is no statistically significant relationship between institutional type and burnout, exhaustion, cynicism, or professional efficacy. Student affairs professionals at public and private institutions reported similar scores on all parts of the MBI. Results from the exhaustion and cynicism subscales were high for student affairs professionals at both institutional types. Scores from the professional efficacy subscale were high for student affairs professionals at public and private institutions. Although there is not a statistically significant relationship between burnout and institutional type, student affairs professionals at public institutions reported higher mean scores on all three MBI subscales than their counterparts at public institutions. Leaders at public and private higher education institutions may not need to address professional efficacy but should consider steps to address the high scores on the exhaustion and cynicism subscales.</p>

<p> The behavioral investigation presented here provides initial behavioral insight into novice interactions occurring within a makerspace. Specifically, this dissertation represents an attempt to identify interactions that support nascent maker and computer science identity and skill behaviors. The data and discussions are provided in order to illuminate relations among physicality, identity, and novice behaviors within a makerspace. The discussion builds primarily on the conceptual bases of behaviorism, relational frame theory, behavioral phenomenology, and radical embodied cognition. </p><p> Through the use of a behavioral framework, the findings presented here shed new light on constructivist approaches to learning. <i>Social context matters.</i> The social environment provides the necessary structure for learning to happen at a makerspace. Tools alone cannot provide a makerspace or make learning happen. <i>But, tools are important.</i> Tools provide a hook, a purpose, a context for people to gather and construct knowledge and artifacts. <i>Interactional histories matter.</i> Students&rsquo; lives outside of the makerspace influence what happens in the makerspace. Students&rsquo; susceptibility to reinforcement from maker-initiatives will be determined by how they relate to makerspaces, makers, and CS. If makerspace components are to be used effectively to broaden CS participation, it will be necessary to purposefully design learning trajectories for identity behaviors as well as conceptual skills. </p><p> The novelty of this study and its findings is the identification, disaggregation, and articulation of the novice maker experience using a behavioral lens. The behavioral approach applied here can pragmatically inform instructional design and investigations of how <i>making</i> can support learning trajectories. Ultimately, this dissertation highlights pathways for future behavioral research and better behaviorally informed design of makerspace-inspired instruction that grows computer science identities and skills.</p>

<p> In nearly every profession, there is a general understanding that decisions should be informed and driven by data. Even in situations where individuals may not have a clear understanding of what data are needed, people have an innate understanding that more information will normally result in a more desirable outcome. Nowhere should the promise of data-based, high-quality decisions be realized more than in public schools that have answered the call to provide school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS). </p><p> The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of data in the implementation of SWPBIS in a large elementary school in a Northern California school district. This study assessed school personnel&rsquo;s ability to access and use student data contained in the district&rsquo;s data system. The study also assessed the impact of providing training to school personnel focused on accessing and using student behavior, attendance, and achievement data available in the district&rsquo;s data system. A mixed methods, embedded design of a primarily quantitative quasi-experimental, one-group pretest-posttest design supplemented by qualitative data comprised the methodology for this study. </p><p> The results presented in this study contribute to research literature on the use of data in schools to improve student outcomes by providing strong support for increased data training of school personnel. There was variability between participants&rsquo; ratings of data accessibility and usefulness. Additionally, there were significant increases in participants&rsquo; ratings regarding the accessibility and usability of data points related to student behavior, attendance, and achievement as a result of data-focused professional development.</p>

<p> The cost of homelessness is high, not only in terms of the array of traumatic experiences of those who are homeless, but in monetary terms for society as a whole. It costs between $20,000 and $40,000 annually for one homeless individual to cycle through public service systems such as emergency rooms, jail, mental health care facilities, and shelters. This annual cost can add up quickly with long periods of homelessness. For half of homeless youth (age 14&ndash;24), homelessness will not end during adolescence. Lack of steady employment is one of the largest barriers for youth experiencing homelessness to become permanently self-sufficient. Examining the factors that contribute to the employability of these youth is critical to developing interventions. For many, education is the key to becoming self-sufficient and exiting homelessness. The unemployment rate is significantly lower for Americans who obtain a high school diploma. The unemployment rate declines further with increases in college education. The findings of this paper are a needs assessment of sorts, pointing to considerable gaps in educational services currently available to youth experiencing homeless, and invalidating the idea that homeless youth do not wish to attain high school, technical school, and college degrees. On the contrary, these youth have high educational aspirations, and while capable of succeeding in education, may require support beyond that of their housed peers because of the additional barriers they face. This desire to pursue education is an important consideration, and should inform the way we approach youth experiencing homelessness with educational services.</p>

<p> This study investigated relationships between nine independent variables and three dependent variables measuring intrinsic motivation (for knowledge, to accomplish, to experience), extrinsic motivation (external, introjected, and identified regulation), and amotivation (neither intrinsic nor extrinsic motivation), in a comparison analysis of second-generation Iranians and American university students. The nine independent variables measured were, participant&rsquo;s age, participant&rsquo;s education, father&rsquo;s education, mother&rsquo;s education, parental income, gender, number of siblings, stress, and confidence. Based on the principles of self-determination theory a multidimensional approach was taken that included assessments of self-efficacy (stress and confidence) and need for social approval to determine if there were any possible interrelationships with the outcome variables. <i>T</i>-test results revealed a significant difference in each motivational type between the Iranian group and the American group. In a step-wise backward multiple regression technique, the nine independent factors were analyzed to determine possible relationships with the outcome variables. The independent variables had a notable influence on the outcome variables and the variable <i>confidence </i> was consistently observed for both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Parental income, gender, stress, and participant&rsquo;s post-graduate/PhD degree level had a direct influence on amotivation. Results indicate that self-determination, autonomy, and regulation of behavior are internalized differently in diverse individuals and social background plays a significant role. Limitations and recommendations for future research are also discussed. </p>

<p> The purpose of this project was to explore the mediating effects of social and academic self-efficacy on the relations between bullying role behaviors and academic achievement. Research has primarily focused on the bully and the victim in bullying situations, which neglects to examine the experiences of those who witness or are involved in the aggressive act, including assisting bullies, defending victims, and ignoring others. As a result, research has overlooked how other bullying roles relate to academic performance. However, research has explored how various bullying role behaviors relate to self-efficacy. Additionally, self-efficacy has been associated with academic performance, such as GPA. The purpose of the current study was to add to the existing bullying role behavior literature by investigating the relations among bully participant role behaviors, self-efficacy beliefs, and GPA. This project investigated the mediational effect of social and academic self-efficacy on the relation between bullying role behaviors and GPA. The mediation models were evaluated separately by gender to differentiate this effect in males and females. In other words, does social and academic self-efficacy explain the association between bully participant role behaviors and GPA in males and females? Data were collected on 7^th-grade students (N= 348). In general, most models exploring the association between bullying role behaviors and GPA through social and academic self-efficacy had consistent results in the male and female samples; however, there were some significant results that were supported in females only (victimization experience). When exploring the mediation models, individuals who engaged in bullying, assisting, outsider behaviors or experience victimization had negative associations with social self-efficacy and academic self-efficacy; there were no significant positive associations between defending behavior and self-efficacy. Across all models, social and academic self-efficacy were significantly and positively associated. Additionally, all or most of the models found significant positive associations between academic self-efficacy and GPA and significant and negative associations between social self-efficacy and GPA. The results of the mediational model varied for each bullying role behavior to suggest that an individual&rsquo;s behavior when bullying occurs influences their self-perceptions and GPA differentially. </p>

<p> An online study was conducted to ascertain the potential of two independent variables, teaching self-efficacy and critical thinking skill (via a self-efficacy survey and a critical thinking appraisal) to predict four aspects of professional engagement (via a teaching career aspirations survey) among 95 self-selected early-career K-12 teachers. A regression model was attempted across the four aspects of professional engagement surveyed: planned persistence (PP), professional development (PD), professional leadership (PL), and planned effort (PE). However the data violated regression assumptions, necessitating non-parametric analysis. Analyses using Kendall&rsquo;s tau showed a significant correlation between teaching self-efficacy and all four dependent variables (&tau;_PD = .34, <i>p</i> &lt; .01; &tau;_PL = .29, <i>p</i> &lt; .01; &tau;_PP = -.09, <i>p</i> &lt; .01; &tau;_PE = .41, <i>p</i> &lt; .01). Critical thinking did not show a significant relationship with professional engagement. Two post hoc studies investigated these results. Non-parametric analysis showed a significant relationship between critical thinking scores and the critical thinking appraisal completion time (&tau; = .15. <i>p</i> &lt; .05). <i>T</i> tests showed no significant differences between a sample (<i>n</i> = 27) of the main group (<i>N</i> = 95) and a retained group of participants who completed the surveys but did not complete the critical thinking appraisal (survey only group, <i>n</i> = 27). The significant relationship between teaching self-efficacy and career engagement in this study warrants further attention.</p>