Three suspended solids types containing a range of physicochemical characteristics were used to determine the effect of suspended solids on the bioavailability of acenaphthene, 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene, zinc, and chlordane to Daphnia magna and Pimephales promelas. Generally, the bioavailability of zinc and chlordane decreased due to interactions with all suspended solids types while bioavailability of acenaphthene and 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene were not clearly reduced. Partition coefficients and slope of dose-response curves related chemical characteristics and organism sensitivity, respectively, to experimentally determined results. It is believed that the biologically available form of these chemicals to Daphnia magna and Pimephales promelas resides in the aqueous phase.

Normal ranges of values for hematological parameters of bluegill gathered seasonally from three lakes were determined. Sexual, seasonal, and inter-lake variations were found. Effects of 2-wk exposure to turbidity on blood parameters included an increase in rbc size and a decrease in small lymphocytes. Effects of 3-hr exposure were increases in rbc count, hemoglobin, and pH and decreases in PG2 and large lymphocytes. The effects of 0.44 and 0.88 ppm chloramines were an increase in blood pH, a decrease in MEV, and severe spastic reactions resulting in loss of equilibrium or death in 90% of the fish. Effects of Flexibacter columnaris included an increase in transformed lymphocytes and a decrease in small lymphocytes.

Ph.D. (Zoology) / The study concept was derived following an information requirement related to the need for the development of a scientifically sound technique to minimize illegal entries at major South African freshwater fishing tournaments. The hypothesis was that fish that are in equilibrium with the environment that they live in should reflect the chemistry of that environment. Therefore it would be possible to chemically link the fish to a specific impoundment and identify whether the fish are indeed from that impoundment or whether they were brought there to be illegally entered at a fishing tournament. The project area consisted of selected lakes within the Vaal, Mgeni, Crocodile (West) and Olifants River catchments in South Africa. The catchments were chosen to contain major sport fishing lakes and to have different sizes, different sources of pollution, different underlying geological compositions and different climates. Soil analyses data from the regional geochemical mapping program of the Council for Geoscience as well as lake sediment and lake water analyses were used to trace chemical elements during weathering, erosion and deposition. This was done to identify unique characteristics that are able to distinguish between water and sediment from individual lakes. It was found that Rb, Sr, Ba, Cu, Ni,Th, Pb, Sc, K, Mg and Ca could be effectively used as single elements or element ratios to distinguish between lakes. Large variation in sediment compositions within individual lakes limited this distinction. Anomalous catchment soil concentrations related to the underlying geology or anthropogenic contamination can however be traced to lake sediments. Rare earth elements are not uniformly distributed in lake sediments or lake waters and sampling localities should be carefully considered when comparing lakes. Leachable soil sulphate distribution patterns from coal mining areas above Lake Witbank and Lake Middelburg extend downstream through Lake Loskop to Lake Arabie (Flag Boshielo). Leachable fluoride, abundant in the Pilanesberg Alkaline Complex extends northwards along rivers draining the complex. The mineralogy of lake sediments was also compared with the major element composition of these sediments as well as with the anion composition of lake water. Genetic rock classification diagrams could be used effectively to show correlations between catchment soil and lake sediment samples both in terms of mineralogy and chemistry. Lake water and fish tissue samples were collected and analysed to investigate the link between element concentrations in lake water and otolith, fin spine, muscle, liver and gill tissues. Using the Sr/Ca elemental ratio, a species-specific correlation was identified between lake water, otolith, spine and gill tissue samples. The best discrimination between fish species was achieved using a Na/Ca versus Mg/Ca elemental ratio diagram of gill tissues. The best discrimination between fish from different lakes was achieved using a Ba/Mg versus Sr/Mg elemental ratio diagram for spine tissue. Sediments from most lakes in the project area showed elevated Hg values during the dry season as well as elevated Hg levels in sediments from the deeper/central part of these lakes. Lake Sterkfontein has a low sediment Hg concentration but contains fish with the highest Hg tissue concentration in the project area. When comparing the Hg distribution in fish muscle and spine tissue from the project area there is a better correlation with species than with location. The Sr isotope ratio of lake water shows a remarkable correlation with the Sr isotope ratio of fish from the same lake. Analytical data showed that fish within a specific lake all have the same Sr isotope ratio in their spines regardless of species, age, sex and condition. The Sr isotope ratio of water generally increases with distance from the source within tertiary catchments and is determined by the prevalent geology of the formations being weathered. In large rivers like the Vaal River where pollution also plays a role the pattern is much more complicated. The Pb isotopic composition of soil samples from Pretoria and the surrounding areas correspond well to the major underlying geological units. Superimposed on this pattern is an anomalous anthropogenic Pb component possibly related to leaded fuel, which extends from the Pretoria city center northwards along the road and railway networks. Water and sediments from Lake Bon Accord and Lake Marais also contain this anthropogenic signature. The hypothesis that fish, which are in equilibrium with the environment that they live in, should reflect the chemistry of that environment, is therefore not rejected since the results of analysing lake water and fish tissues from 23 South African lakes, within 4 major catchments showed definite correlations. Comparing single elements is the least effective method of establishing such correlations. Comparing elemental ratios is a much better method, while comparing isotope ratios is the most effective method.

M.Sc. / A comprehensive histology-based fish health assessment was implemented at the Roodeplaat Dam (RD), Pretoria, South Africa, to determine the health status of two fresh water fish species, Clarias gariepinus (n = 20) and Oreochromis mossambicus (n = 18), after exposure to pollutants. RD is known to be polluted, being impacted from two sewage treatment plants, industry, housing and agriculture all upstream of the reserve. Excessive nutrient loads, such as orthophosphate, resulted in the dam becoming eutrophic. The quality of water in the RD was a cause for concern, as the fish from the dam are being used as a source of food by the local people. The histology-based fish health assessment included fish necropsy, calculation of gross body indices and histological assessment. Water quality (chemical and physical) analysis was also carried. Furthermore, target chemical analysis of fish tissue (skeletal muscle) was performed to determine the levels of contaminants in the consumable parts of the fish. These results were compared with existing international guidelines to determine whether the harvested fish were safe for human consumption. All the information obtained was integrated in a qualitative and quantitative scenario-based health risk assessment.

M.Sc. / Water resources in South Africa are scarce and need to be protected and managed in a sustainable way for future generations. Food supply is a great priority worldwide and the pressure to produce enough food has resulted in the expansion of irrigation and the steadily increasing use of fertilizers and pesticides to achieve higher yields. Rivers are impacted by agriculture through increased suspended sediment loads (which affects primary production, habitat reduction and introduction of absorbed pollutants), elevated nutrient inputs (which may increase the abundances of algae and aquatic plants), salinization and pesticide runoff (which eliminates species intolerant to these conditions and therefore impacts on the normal production of the river system). Aquatic biota plays an integral part in the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. Biological monitoring is used to assess ecosystem health and integrity. Biological communities reflect the overall integrity of the river ecosystem by integrating various stressors and therefore provide a broad measure of their synergistic effects. The research area falls within the Lower Vaal Water Management Area (WMA), which lies in the North-West and Northern Cape Provinces. The lower Vaal River and the Harts River (one of the tributaries of the Vaal) are the river systems under investigation in this study. Farming activities ranges from extensive livestock production and rain fed cultivation to intensive irrigation enterprises at Vaalharts (such as maize, cotton and groundnuts). The Vaalharts is the largest irrigation scheme in South Africa. Salinity is of concern in the lower reaches of the Harts- and Vaal Rivers, due to saline leachate from the Vaalharts irrigation scheme. Agricultural inputs are known to affect aquatic communities and chemicals (e.g. pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers) are extensively used in the Vaalharts irrigation scheme. At present there are no data on the effect of these chemicals on the aquatic biota of the lower Harts- and Vaal Rivers. The aims of this study were to assess the diatom- and macroinvertebrate community structures, ecosystem integrity and macroinvertebrate feeding traits (functional feeding groups – FFGs) in relation to land use.

A the'.is submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in the fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of Magister Scientae. June 1992 / Aspects of the brown alga Pict~'ppt;eris lQ..n..qifolia at. Palm Beach, Natal, were investigated wi\'-;.hspecial reference to the effect of wave expozu~e~ A description of the species is giv~n and the nomencluture discussed. D~strib1i.ltion of n. ).or~gifolia was det~rmimad from literature and herbarium speof.mens . various r(\~:~thodosf measuring wave exposure were assessed and review~~d. At'!;:.emptswere made to quantify sand abrasion and deposition in tihe scudy si.tes. Morphological and structural aspect;s of the cha LLus were found to vary considerably with season and wave exposure" Light and scanning electron microscopy studie.s indicated the relatjvely complex cell organisation of this brown alga. The prolific regeneration from various thallus sections of .Q. longifolia indicate that regenerat.ion is an important survival strate 'JY following damage. Sexual reproduction and tetrasporogenesis were investigated. Sex.ual reproduction was not prolific in the field, however, tetraspores were abundant and are believed to be particul~rly importcmt in high wave exposure areas. 11. _j.Q.ngi;f'clige,x_periences a range of environmental conditions and responds to these with morphological, structural and reproductive &daptations.

Guan, Lijie. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 139-161). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements --- p.i / Table of contents --- p.vii / List of Figures --- p.X / List of Tables --- p.xiii / Abbreviations --- p.xiv / Chapter 1. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Source and Fate of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Wastewater --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Sewage sludge and soil --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- "Surface water, ground water and seawater" --- p.6 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Drinking water --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3 --- Effects on the Environment --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Antibiotic resistance --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Ecotoxicity on the aquatic organisms --- p.14 / Chapter 1.4 --- Removal in the Environment --- p.19 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- Adsorption --- p.20 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- Photodegradation and hydrolysis --- p.22 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- Biodegradation --- p.23 / Chapter 1.5 --- Analytical Method of Pharmaceuticals in Environmental Samples --- p.25 / Chapter 1.5.1 --- Solid-phase extraction --- p.25 / Chapter 1.5.2 --- Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry --- p.30 / Chapter 1.6 --- Objectives and Outline of Thesis --- p.33 / Chapter 2 --- OCCURRENCE AND FATE OF SELECTED PHARMCEUTICALS IN STPS --- p.35 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.35 / Chapter 2.2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.36 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Choice of pharmaceuticals for study --- p.36 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Description of sewage treatment plants (STPs) --- p.41 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Experimental approach --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3 --- Results and Discussion --- p.55 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Occurrence of azithromycin --- p.55 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Fate of azithromycin --- p.59 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Occurrence of erythromycin --- p.63 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Fate of erythromycin --- p.67 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Occurrence of roxithromycin --- p.70 / Chapter 2.3.6 --- Fate of roxithromycin --- p.74 / Chapter 2.3.7 --- Occurrence of atenolol --- p.75 / Chapter 2.3.8 --- Fate of atenolol --- p.79 / Chapter 2.3.9 --- Occurrence of simvastatin --- p.81 / Chapter 2.3.10 --- Fate of simvastatin --- p.84 / Chapter 2.3.11 --- Fate of pharmaceuticals during different treatment process --- p.85 / Chapter 2.3.12 --- Contribution of industrial (manufacturing) plants to STPs --- p.87 / Chapter 2.3.13 --- Seasonal variation --- p.87 / Chapter 2.4 --- Summary --- p.90 / Chapter 3 --- EFFECTS OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON ACTIVATED SLUDGE BACTERIA --- p.91 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.91 / Chapter 3.2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.92 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Growth inhibition test --- p.92 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Nitrification inhibition test --- p.94 / Chapter 3.3 --- Results and Discussion --- p.96 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Growth inhibition of activated sludge bacteria --- p.96 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Inhibition of nitrifying bacteria --- p.102 / Chapter 4 --- BIODEGRADATION PATHWAYS OF FOUR PHARMACEUTICALS --- p.106 / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.106 / Chapter 4.2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.107 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Test procedures --- p.107 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Detection method --- p.108 / Chapter 4.3 --- Results and Discussion --- p.109 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Degradation of atenolol --- p.109 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Degradation of azithromycin --- p.117 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Degradation of erythromycin --- p.129 / Chapter 4.3.4 --- Degradation of roxithromycin --- p.133 / Chapter 4.4 --- Summary --- p.134 / Chapter 5 --- GENERAL CONCLUSIONS --- p.136 / References --- p.139

Thesis (M.Sc. (Zoology)) --University Limpopo, 2013 / Major anthropogenic activities such as, mining, coal-fired power stations and intensive agricultural practices in the upper catchment area of the Olifants River, have a dramatic impact on the water quality downstream. As a result the river is presently the third most polluted river in South Africa. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of water and sediment quality on the health of Labeo rosae and Schilbe intermedius. The aim was accomplished by applying the Fish Health Assessment Index (HAI) which includes the Parasite Index (PI) at Flag Boshielo Dam in the Middle Olifants River, Limpopo Province. This was achieved through; assessing the water quality of the dam by determining the levels of physical and chemical constituents in the water at three sampling sites, determining the bioaccumulation of selected metals in the muscle tissue of the two fish species, assessing the fish health (including the fish condition factor) and the fish parasites in the dam by using the fish HAI and PI, and ascertaining the Human Health risk factor upon consumption of fish contaminated with metals from the dam. The water and sediment quality were seasonally sampled at three sites in the dam: inflow, middle and wall. Dorsal muscle tissues from both fish species were collected for metal bioaccumulation analyses. The water, sediment and fish muscle tissue samples were analysed by an accredited laboratory by means of ICP-OES spectrometry. For the fish health and parasites, ten fish per species were collected seasonally (July 2009 to April 2010) by means of gill nets and examined at a field laboratory using the HAI and PI protocol. Generally the water quality of Flag Boshielo Dam was acceptable for aquatic ecosystems according to the SAWQG with the exception of phosphorus and some metals at the inflow area. The pH ranged between slightly acidic to alkaline values; water temperature: 15°C to 26°C; water hardness medium soft, salinity within the freshwater range; turbidity in the clear water range. The TDS and major ions (salts) were acceptable for the duration of the study. The highest concentrations of nutrients (specifically phosphorus) as well as metals (aluminium, cadmium, copper, iron and lead) were recorded at the inflow area of the dam. The nutrients were very low except the eutrophic range phosphorus concentrations recorded at the inflow whereby, the Elands River may be an additional source of nutrients into Flag Boshielo Dam. The metals that were recorded above TWQR are; aluminium, cadmium, copper, iron and lead, of which were mostly recorded at the inflow. However, statistically there was no significant difference among the three sampling sites. The metal concentrations at the inflow were recorded only slightly higher than the middle and the dam wall. The main source of the metals may be the water coming from catchment area of the dam given the intensive agricultural activities taking place between Loskop Dam and Flag Boshielo Dam. Sediment and bioaccumulation: All the metals were recorded at higher concentrations in the sediment than in the water and fish muscle tissue, except antimony, selenium and strontium. The most abundant metals recorded in the sediment were iron and aluminium. However, the concentrations above the TEL were cadmium, nickel and zinc. The elevated metal concentrations in the sediment are indicating that the metal load in the sediment of Flag Boshielo Dam could be a potential risk for the aquatic biota if they become bioavailable. Antimony, selenium and strontium metal concentrations were recorded at higher concentrations in the muscle tissue of both fish species than in the sediment and water. Iron was the most accumulated metal in the muscle tissue of both fish species. In terms of numbers, more metals were recorded in the muscle tissue of S. intermedius than in L. rosae however the metal concentrations were higher in the latter. This can be attributed to their different trophic levels in the food chain; L. rosae is a primary consumer while S. intermedius is a tertiary consumer. However, the metals that accumulated in the fish muscle tissue were indicative of bio-availability of the toxic metals in the dam and not water/sediment pollution. According to a Human Health risk assessment (Chapter 3), metals that may have risks upon consumption of L. rosae are; antimony, arsenic, chromium, iron and vanadium; for S. intermedius are; antimony, chromium, iron, vanadium and arsenic (in descending order). These metals may pose toxic and carcinogenic risks to humans. Therefore, the rednose labeo (L. rosae) and to a lesser extend the silver catfish (S. intermedius) fish species from Flag Boshielo Dam may not be suitable for humans if consumed above 350 g per week. Fish health and parasites: The Health Assessment Index (HAI) values of the two fish species differed significantly with higher index values recorded for S. intermedius than L. rosae. Besides the Parasite Index (PI), abnormal haematocrit readings, liver conditions, skin lesions and clubbed gills are the necropsy anomalies that contributed predominantly to the HAI. Overall, the PI contributed mostly to the total HAI value. The parasite load and therefore also the mean intensity, mean abundance and prevalence of S. intermedius were higher during all seasons than that of L. rosae. The dominant ectoparasites for both species were from the Class Monogenea and the dominant endoparasites were nematodes. Out of 40 L. rosae sampled, 139 parasites were retrieved; five parasite species were ectoparasites and two endoparasites. From the 40 S. intermedius sampled, 2473 parasites were retrieved, from which two species (one genus) were ectoparasites and three species were endoparasites. The condition factor is used to compare the “condition”, “fatness” or wellbeing of fish and it is based on the hypothesis that heavier fish of a particular length are in a better physiological condition. The L. rosae had a better condition factor, recorded at values less than (2) as compared to S. intermedius (>2). The cause of the HAI necropsy anomalies may have been also from parasite load other than the metals in the water and sediment. However, the HAI alone cannot be used for metal pollution, unless it is done in conjunction with a histopathological study of the tissues/organs. Therefore, the cause of the recorded anomalies from both fish species is inconclusive. On the hand, fish can be used as bioindicators because the accumulated metals in the fish tissues are indicative of the bioavailability of metals in Flag Boshielo Dam.

Thesis (M.Sc. ( Physiology )) --University of Limpopo, 2011 / Refer to document / the National Research Foundation

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