L'objectif de cette thèse est d'explorer les corrélats électrophysiologiques du traitement des émotions à différents niveaux : la perception, la réactivité et la régulation émotionnelles, chez des patients bipolaires. La plupart des études portant sur le traitement des émotions dans cette population clinique se sont focalisées sur le traitement des émotions faciales. Ces études ont mis en évidence un dysfonctionnement des processus de réactivité et de régulation émotionnelles. Cependant, peu d'études se sont intéressées au traitement de la prosodie émotionnelle chez ces patients. Or, la prosodie émotionnelle joue un rôle central dans les interactions sociales. C'est pourquoi il apparaît important d'étudier les corrélats électrophysiologiques des processus mis en œuvre à un stade pré-attentionnel, au niveau de la détection de changements survenant dans notre environnement auditif et de l'orientation de l'attention, étapes précoces du traitement des émotions (Scherer, 2001). A notre connaissance, aucune étude ne s'y est intéressée chez les patients bipolaires. Par ailleurs, un grand nombre d'études montrent que ces patients présentent une hyperréactivité émotionnelle ainsi qu'un défaut de régulation émotionnelle, en lien avec des anomalies telles qu'une hyperactiviation amygdalienne et/ou une hypoactivation du cortex préfrontal. Cependant, les corrélats électrophysiologiques de la réactivité et de la régulation émotionnelles sont peu connus chez ces patients comme dans la population générale. L'objet de ce travail est de proposer deux expériences en électroencéphalographie afin d'étudier le décours temporel des processus de détection de la nouveauté et d'orientation non volontaire de l'attention et de processus de réactivité et de régulation émotionnelles à l'aide des potentiels évoqués. Dans la première expérience, nous utilisons un paradigme Oddball afin d'étudier la détection de la nouveauté et l'orientation non volontaire de l'attention : le matériel élaboré spécialement pour cette étude est constitué de voyelles (/a/, /i/, /u/) produites avec une prosodie de joie, de peur, de tristesse ou neutre. Dans la seconde expérience, nous avons repris le paradigme d'induction émotionnelle à l'aide d'images (Schönfelder et al., 2013), dans lequel les participants observent passivement les images ou utilisent une stratégie de régulation émotionnelle (distraction, réinterprétation cognitive). Les principaux résultats ce cette thèse montrent des anomalies de traitement des émotions chez les patients bipolaires, dès les étapes précoces de détection de la nouveauté et d'orientation non volontaire de l'attention. Si les participants contrôles présentent une MisMatch Negativity (négativité de discordance) plus ample pour certaines émotions (la peur) que pour d'autres (la joie), ce n'est pas le cas des patients. Par ailleurs, ces derniers ne présentent pas de modulation de la P3a par le changement d'émotions, ce qui indique une anomalie de l'orientation non volontaire de l'attention vers des stimuli émotionnels. Néanmoins, ils réagissent plus rapidement au changement d'émotions que les contrôles. À des étapes plus tardives, les patients bipolaires témoignent d'une réactivité émotionnelle importante pour les stimuli neutres, ce qui n'est pas le cas des contrôles. Enfin, les patients ne parviennent pas à réguler les émotions positives à l'aide d'une stratégie fondée sur le mécanisme de redéploiement attentionnel. Ces résultats suggèrent que les patients bipolaires présentent des anomalies de traitement des émotions dès les premiers processus perceptifs, n'impliquant pas de mécanismes d'attention volontaire, jusqu'à des niveaux de traitement plus contrôlés (réactivité et régulation émotionnelle volontaires). Cette thèse apporte de nouvelles données concernant la perception, la réactivité et la régulation émotionnelles et contribue à une meilleure connaissance des bases neurophysiologiques du traitement des émotions chez les patients bipolaire / This thesis investigates electrophysiological correlates of emotion processing from perception to reactivity and emotion regulation in adult with bipolar disorders. Most studies with such patients have focused on the processing of facial emotion. They showed impairment of facial recognition as well as emotional reactivity and regulation. However, few studies investigated the processing of emotional prosody and preattentive stage of processing in patient with bipolar disorders. Given that emotional prosody plays a crucial role in social interactions, it is important to better understand neurophysiological correlates of novelty detection and involuntary orientation of attention which constitute early stages of emotional processing (Scherer, 2001). To our knowledge, no study has yet addressed this issue in bipolar disorder. Moreover, patients with bipolar disorder have abnormal emotional reactivity and a deficit in emotion regulation along with hyperactivation of amygdala and hypoactivation of prefrontal cortex. Also, electrophysiological correlates of emotional reactivity and regulation are not well known in patients with bipolar disorders and in general population. For this purpose, two experiments were run in the present thesis in order to investigate the time course of novelty detection, involuntary orientation of attention, emotion reactivity and emotion regulation using evoked potentials responses. In the first experiment, an Oddball paradigm was used to assess novelty detection and orientation of attention. The linguistic material specifically designed for this study consists of French vowels (/a/, /i/, /u/) produced with happiness, fear, sadness or neutral prosodies. In the second experiment, an emotional induction paradigm (Schönfelder et al., 2013) was employed. Participants watched affective or neutral pictures or used an emotion regulation strategy (i.e., distraction or cognitive reappraisal). Taken together, the results of the present thesis indicate that patients with bipolar disorders show impairment in emotion processing even at preattentive stages such as novelty detection and involuntary orientation of attention. Healthy participants show a larger MisMatch Negativity in response to fear than to happiness, whereas patients did not. These patients did not show modulation of the P3a in response to emotion change, suggesting dysfunctioning of orientation of attention towards emotional stimuli. However, they were more sensible to emotion change than control as indicating by faster response in the case of such change. At a later stage, patients present greater emotional reactivity in response to neutral stimuli than controls. Moreover, they fail to regulate positive emotions using a regulation strategy based on attentional deployment (distraction). Overall, these results suggest that patient with bipolar disorder already show dysfunctioning at a perceptive level of emotional processing. A dysfunctioning was also attested at a more controlled processing (e.g. emotional reactivity and emotion regulation). Our work enriches the understanding on perception, reactivity and emotion regulation and contributes to a better understanding of neurophysiological bases of emotion processing in patients with bipolar disorder.

Decision-making is comprised of an incredibly varied set of behaviours. However, all vertebrates tend to repeat previously rewarding actions and avoid those that have led to loss, behaviours known collectively as the win-stay, lose-shift strategy. This response strategy is supported by the sensorimotor striatum and nucleus accumbens, structures also implicated in spatial processing and the integration of sensory information in order to guide motor action. Therefore, choices may be represented as spatial-motor actions whose value is determined by the rewards and punishments associated with that action. In this dissertation I demonstrate that the location of choices relative to previous rewards and punishments, rather than their identities, determines their value. Chapters 2 and 4 demonstrate that the location of rewards and punishments drives future decisions to win-stay or lose-shift towards that location. Even when choices differ in colour or shape, choice value is determined by location, not visual identity. Chapter 3 compares decision-making when two, six, twelve, or eighteen choices are present, finding that the value of a win or loss is not tied to a single location, but is distributed throughout the choice environment. Finally, Chapter 5 provides anatomical support for the spatial-motor basis of choice. Specifically, win-stay responses are associated with greater oscillatory activity than win-shift responses in the motor cortex corresponding to the hand used to make a choice, whereas lose-shift responses are accompanied by greater activation of frontal systems compared to lose-stay responses. The win-stay and lose-shift behaviours activate structures known to project to different regions of the striatum. Overall, this dissertation provides behavioural evidence that choice location, not visual identity, determines choice value. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This thesis presents methods for detecting consciousness in patients with complete locked-in syndrome (CLIS). CLIS patients are unable to speak and have lost all muscle movement. Externally, the internal brain activity of such patients cannot be easily perceived, but CLIS patients are considered to be still conscious and cognitively active. Detecting the current state of consciousness of CLIS patients is non-trivial, and it is difficult to ascertain whether CLIS patients are conscious or not. Thus, it is vital to develop alternative ways to re-establish communication with these patients during periods of awareness, and a possible platform is through brain–computer interface (BCI). Since consciousness is required to use BCI correctly, this study proposes a modus operandi to analyze not only in intracranial electrocorticography (ECoG) signals with greater signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and higher signal amplitude, but also in non-invasive electroencephalography (EEG) signals. By applying three different time-domain analysis approaches sample entropy, permutation entropy, and Poincaré plot as feature extraction to prevent disease-related reductions of brainwave frequency bands in CLIS patients, and cross-validated to improve the probability of correctly detecting the conscious states of CLIS patients. Due to the lack a of 'ground truth' that could be used as teaching input to correct the outcomes, k-Means and DBSCAN these unsupervised learning methods were used to reveal the presence of different levels of consciousness for individual participation in the experiment first in locked-in state (LIS) patients with ALSFRS-R score of 0. The results of these different methods converge on the specific periods of consciousness of CLIS/LIS patients, coinciding with the period during which CLIS/LIS patients recorded communication with an experimenter. To determine methodological feasibility, the methods were also applied to patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC). The results indicate that the use of sample entropy might be helpful to detect awareness not only in CLIS/LIS patients but also in minimally conscious state (MCS)/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) patients, and showed good resolution for both ECoG signals up to 24 hours a day and EEG signals focused on one or two hours at the time of the experiment. This thesis focus on consistent results across multiple channels to avoid compensatory effects of brain injury. Unlike most techniques designed to help clinicians diagnose and understand patients' long-term disease progression or distinguish between different disease types on the clinical scales of consciousness. The aim of this investigation is to develop a reliable brain-computer interface-based communication aid eventually to provide family members with a method for short-term communication with CLIS patients in daily life, and at the same time, this will keep patients' brains active to increase patients' willingness to live and improve their quality of life (QOL).

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(教育学) / 甲第24353号 / 教博第283号 / 新制||教||214(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院教育学研究科教育科学専攻 / (主査)教授 MANALO Emmanuel, 教授 楠見 孝, 准教授 野村 理朗 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Education) / Kyoto University / DGAM

A consensus model combines statistical methods with signal processing to create a better picture of the family of related signals. In this thesis, we will consider 32 signals produced by a single electroencephalogram (EEG) recording session. The consensus model will be produced by using the S-Transform of the individual signals and then normalized to unit energy. A bootstrapping process is used to produce a consensus spectrum. This leads to the consensus model via the inverse S-Transform of the consensus spectrum. The method will be applied to both a control and experimental EEG to show how the results can be used in clinical settings to analyze experimental outcomes.

Approximately 20 million people in the United States suffer from irreversible nerve damage and would benefit from a neuroprosthetic device modulated by a Brain-Computer Interface (BCI). These devices restore independence by replacing peripheral nervous system functions such as peripheral control. Although there are currently devices under investigation, contemporary methods fail to offer adaptability and proper signal recognition for output devices. Human anatomical differences prevent the use of a fixed model system from providing consistent classification performance among various subjects. Furthermore, notoriously noisy signals such as Electroencephalography (EEG) require complex measures for signal detection. Therefore, there remains a tremendous need to explore and improve new algorithms. This report investigates a signal-processing model that is better suited for BCI applications because it incorporates machine learning and fuzzy logic. Whereas traditional machine learning techniques utilize precise functions to map the input into the feature space, fuzzy-neuro system apply imprecise membership functions to account for uncertainty and can be updated via supervised learning. Thus, this method is better equipped to tolerate uncertainty and improve performance over time. Moreover, a variation of this algorithm used in this study has a higher convergence speed. The proposed two-stage signal-processing model consists of feature extraction and feature translation, with an emphasis on the latter. The feature extraction phase includes Blind Source Separation (BSS) and the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and the feature translation stage includes the Takagi-Sugeno-Kang Fuzzy-Neural Network (TSKFNN). Performance of the proposed model corresponds to an average classification accuracy of 79.4 % for 40 subjects, which is higher than the standard literature values, 75%, making this a superior model.

The critical bandwidth (CBW) is an auditory phenomenon that has been used to study various aspects of auditory processing, including auditory masking, complex tone processing, and loudness perception. Although the psychoacoustic aspects of the CBW have been well studied, the underlying neurophysiology of the CBW has not been as thoroughly examined. The current study examined the neurophysiology of the CBW in young adults, as well as loudness perception in response to the CBW. Auditory stimuli consisting of complex tones of varying bandwidths were presented to 12 individuals (6 male and 6 female, ages 18-26 years). Complex tones were presented around center frequencies (CFs) of 250, 500, 1000, and 3000 Hz at bandwidths of 2, 5, 8, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz. Participants made loudness perception judgments while electroencephalography measured and recorded components of the event related potentials (ERPs) in response to the acoustic stimuli. Reaction time (RT) was recorded for each behavioral response, and the latencies of the N1, P2, C3, and C4 components of the ERPs were obtained. The results showed that RT increased with increasing bandwidth followed by a decrease in RT corresponding approximately with the CBW. This indicated that participants perceived a change in loudness at bandwidths greater than the CBW. Significant differences, p < .05, in RT were observed in bandwidths of 5 Hz and greater, although there was not complete consistency in this observation across all CFs and bandwidths. No significant critical band-like behavior amongst ERP latencies was observed. The results indicated that responses to acoustic stimuli originating in the superior temporal gyrus progressed to areas of higher neural function in the mid-temporal lobe. It was observed that each response must be processed temporally and independently to determine if a frequency difference is present for each stimulus. This observation is significant because this type of processing had not been identified prior to the current study.

The mismatch negativity (MMN) response, a passively-elicited component of the auditory event-related potential (ERP), reflects preattentive identification of infrequent changes in acoustic stimuli. In the current study, the MMN response was examined closely to determine what extent natural speech sounds evoke the MMN. It was hypothesized that a significant MMN response results during the presentation of deviant stimuli from which spectral energy within formant bands critical to vowel identification has been removed. Localizations of dipoles within the cortex were hypothesized to yield information pertaining to the processing of formant-specific linguistic information. A same/different discrimination task was administered to 20 adult participants (10 female and 10 male) between the ages of 18 and 26 years. Data from behavioral responses and ERPs were recorded. Results demonstrated that the MMN may be evoked by natural speech sounds. Grand-averaged brain maps of ERPs created for all stimulus pairs showed a large preattentive negativity. Additionally, amplitudes of the MMN were greatest for pairs of auditory stimuli in which spectral energy not corresponding to formant frequencies was digitally eliminated. Dipoles reconstructed from temporal ERP data were located in cortical areas known to support language and auditory processing. Significant differences between stimulus type and reaction time were also noted. The current investigation confirms that the MMN response is evoked by natural speech sounds and provides evidence for a theory of preattentive formant-based processing of speech sounds.

Cross modality matching is a magnitude matching procedure, developed to study the relationships between sensory modalities. Auditory and visual sensory integration can be examined through cross modality matching of brightness and loudness. Brightness and loudness are natural correlates of one another as they both represent the parameter of intensity for their respective sensory modalities. Past studies have demonstrated that typical individuals tend to match brighter lights with louder sounds and dimmer lights with softer sounds. The current study utilized a modified cross modality matching procedure, combined with electroencephalography (EEG) data, to examine the cortical response to sensory integration. It was hypothesized that the response latency and cortical distribution of the EEG data would show differences between matched and unmatched conditions of light and sound stimuli. Light and sound stimuli were presented to 10 participants (five males and five females between the ages of 18 and 28 years) in a forced choice paradigm. The behavioral responses, reaction times, and EEG data were recorded for each patient. Results demonstrated that there were significant differences in behavioral reaction time among the stimulus conditions. However, reaction times were only significantly faster for the loudest sound paired with the brightest light. No other pairs of matched stimuli resulted in faster reaction times. Event related potentials (ERPs) were identified for matched and unmatched stimulus conditions. No differences were identified in latency of the ERPs among conditions. Additionally, source localization revealed that dipole locations for each stimulus condition remained relatively constant in the prefrontal cortex. As the prefrontal cortex has been found to be associated with decision-making and sensory integration, it can be concluded that sensory integration did occur. However, the processing of sensory information did not change for matched or unmatched conditions of light and sound.

The present study investigated how heightened P3a effects may be induced using a free-operant paradigm rather than traditional two and three stimulus oddballs. This was accomplished by using a fixed set of stimuli and mixed FR5 and VR5 reinforcement schedules. Most participants showed heightened P3a effects in the VR5 conditions, but a few participants did not. The data for the group that did not show the P3a effect in their data were variable, and definite conclusions about the factors related to the non-occurrence of the P3a were not researched. Despite this, there appears to be a relation between operant behavior dimensions (i.e., reaction time and response rate) and the P3a effect, with higher reaction times and lower response rates correlated to more significant P3a effects. Limitations discussed include the use of too simple of a behavioral topography and the lack of anecdotal participant interviews that could shed light on deviant performances.