Na inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) um dos dois cromossomos X presentes nas fêmeas de mamíferos placentários é silenciado transcricionalmente. Esse é um mecanismo de compensação de dose que assegura que a quantidade dos produtos gênicos oriundos do cromossomo X esteja em equilíbrio entre machos e fêmeas. A ICX pode ocorrer de modo aleatório, onde cada célula escolhe ao acaso qual será o cromossomo X inativado: cromossomo X paterno ou cromossomo X materno; ou de forma \"imprintada\" (termo adaptado do inglês imprinted), ou seja, dependente da origem parental do cromossomo X. Enquanto nas fêmeas marsupiais a inativação ocorre de forma \"imprintada\", sendo o X paterno inativado em todos os tecidos, nos mamíferos eutérios a ICX nos tecidos somáticos ocorre de modo aleatório. Porém alguns eutérios mantiveram o mecanismo \"imprintado\" de ICX exclusivamente nos tecidos extraembrionários, como ratos e camundongos. Em humanos, o estado controverso da ICX em tecidos extraembrionários foi reavaliado por nosso grupo utilizando uma análise mais ampla e identificou-se um padrão aleatório (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010), demonstrando a importância de se realizar uma análise global para se determinar o perfil de atividade do cromossomo X. Em bovinos o padrão de ICX em placenta não está claro. Ele foi verificado analisando-se a expressão de um único gene, e os autores concluíram que o padrão era \"imprintado\" (Xue et al., 2002). Porém a análise de um único gene pode não representar o estado epigenético de um cromossomo inteiro. Assim o padrão de ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos se mostra uma questão importantíssima para ser esclarecida. No presente trabalho o cromossomo X bovino foi analisado em busca de SNPs (polimorfismos de base única) localizados em regiões codificadoras em genes expressos no tecido extraembrionário, permitindo assim através da análise da expressão alelo-específica determinar o padrão de expressão do cromossomo X. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho mostram um padrão de expressão bialélica, indicando que em populações diferentes de células, diferentes cromossomos X estavam ativos. Portanto a ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos ocorre de modo aleatório, padrão semelhantes àquele encontrado em humanos, e diferente daquele encontrado em ratos e camundongos. Este trabalho mostra a importância de uma análise global da expressão gênica no cromossomo X, permitindo assim traçar um perfil de atividade mais próximo possível da realidade. / In X chromosome inactivation (XCI), one of the two X chromosomes present in female mammals is transcriptionally silenced, resulting in a dosage compensation mechanism. The XCI can occur randomly, so that each cell chooses randomly which one will be the inactivated X chromosome: paternal (pX) or maternal (mX); or dependent on parental origin of X chromosome, ie, imprinted. While in female marsupials the inactivation occurs in an imprinted fashion, with the Xp inactivated in all tissues, both somatic and extra-embryonic, in the mammalian eutherians XCI in the somatic tissues occurs randomly. However some eutherians still retain the imprinted XCI mechanism exclusively in extra-embryonic tissues, such as rats and mice. In humans, the controversy of the XCI in placenta was re-evaluated by our group. Using a broader analysis, a random pattern was identified, in contrast to the previously published works. It demonstrated the importance of conducting a comprehensive analysis to determine the profile of X chromosome (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010). In cattle the pattern of XCI in bovine placenta is unclear. It was verified by analyzing the expression of a single gene, and the authors concluded that the pattern was imprinted (Xue et al., 2002). Because the analysis of a single gene may not represent the epigenetic state of an entire chromosome, the pattern of XCI in cattle extra-embryonic tissues is an important issue to be clarified. In the present study the cattle X chromosome was analyzed searching for SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) located in coding regions of genes expressed in extra-embryonic tissue. So that, by analyzing the allele-specific expression it is possible to determine the X chromosome expression patter. The preset results show a bi-allelic expression pattern. This indicates that in different cells populations, different X chromosomes are active. Thus, the XCI in extra-embryonic tissues of bovines occurs randomly, similar to the human pattern but different to that verified in rats and mice. This work shows the importance of a global analysis of the gene expression in X chromosome, through which it can trace the closest activity profile as possible to reality.

Na inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) um dos dois cromossomos X presentes nas fêmeas de mamíferos placentários é silenciado transcricionalmente. Esse é um mecanismo de compensação de dose que assegura que a quantidade dos produtos gênicos oriundos do cromossomo X esteja em equilíbrio entre machos e fêmeas. A ICX pode ocorrer de modo aleatório, onde cada célula escolhe ao acaso qual será o cromossomo X inativado: cromossomo X paterno ou cromossomo X materno; ou de forma \"imprintada\" (termo adaptado do inglês imprinted), ou seja, dependente da origem parental do cromossomo X. Enquanto nas fêmeas marsupiais a inativação ocorre de forma \"imprintada\", sendo o X paterno inativado em todos os tecidos, nos mamíferos eutérios a ICX nos tecidos somáticos ocorre de modo aleatório. Porém alguns eutérios mantiveram o mecanismo \"imprintado\" de ICX exclusivamente nos tecidos extraembrionários, como ratos e camundongos. Em humanos, o estado controverso da ICX em tecidos extraembrionários foi reavaliado por nosso grupo utilizando uma análise mais ampla e identificou-se um padrão aleatório (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010), demonstrando a importância de se realizar uma análise global para se determinar o perfil de atividade do cromossomo X. Em bovinos o padrão de ICX em placenta não está claro. Ele foi verificado analisando-se a expressão de um único gene, e os autores concluíram que o padrão era \"imprintado\" (Xue et al., 2002). Porém a análise de um único gene pode não representar o estado epigenético de um cromossomo inteiro. Assim o padrão de ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos se mostra uma questão importantíssima para ser esclarecida. No presente trabalho o cromossomo X bovino foi analisado em busca de SNPs (polimorfismos de base única) localizados em regiões codificadoras em genes expressos no tecido extraembrionário, permitindo assim através da análise da expressão alelo-específica determinar o padrão de expressão do cromossomo X. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho mostram um padrão de expressão bialélica, indicando que em populações diferentes de células, diferentes cromossomos X estavam ativos. Portanto a ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos ocorre de modo aleatório, padrão semelhantes àquele encontrado em humanos, e diferente daquele encontrado em ratos e camundongos. Este trabalho mostra a importância de uma análise global da expressão gênica no cromossomo X, permitindo assim traçar um perfil de atividade mais próximo possível da realidade. / In X chromosome inactivation (XCI), one of the two X chromosomes present in female mammals is transcriptionally silenced, resulting in a dosage compensation mechanism. The XCI can occur randomly, so that each cell chooses randomly which one will be the inactivated X chromosome: paternal (pX) or maternal (mX); or dependent on parental origin of X chromosome, ie, imprinted. While in female marsupials the inactivation occurs in an imprinted fashion, with the Xp inactivated in all tissues, both somatic and extra-embryonic, in the mammalian eutherians XCI in the somatic tissues occurs randomly. However some eutherians still retain the imprinted XCI mechanism exclusively in extra-embryonic tissues, such as rats and mice. In humans, the controversy of the XCI in placenta was re-evaluated by our group. Using a broader analysis, a random pattern was identified, in contrast to the previously published works. It demonstrated the importance of conducting a comprehensive analysis to determine the profile of X chromosome (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010). In cattle the pattern of XCI in bovine placenta is unclear. It was verified by analyzing the expression of a single gene, and the authors concluded that the pattern was imprinted (Xue et al., 2002). Because the analysis of a single gene may not represent the epigenetic state of an entire chromosome, the pattern of XCI in cattle extra-embryonic tissues is an important issue to be clarified. In the present study the cattle X chromosome was analyzed searching for SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) located in coding regions of genes expressed in extra-embryonic tissue. So that, by analyzing the allele-specific expression it is possible to determine the X chromosome expression patter. The preset results show a bi-allelic expression pattern. This indicates that in different cells populations, different X chromosomes are active. Thus, the XCI in extra-embryonic tissues of bovines occurs randomly, similar to the human pattern but different to that verified in rats and mice. This work shows the importance of a global analysis of the gene expression in X chromosome, through which it can trace the closest activity profile as possible to reality.

Renal tissue engineering and regenerative medicine represent a significant clinical objective because of the very limited prospect of cure after classical kidney treatment. Thus, approaches to isolate, manipulate and reintegrate structures or stimulating the selfregenerative potential of renal tissue are of special interest. Such new strategies go back to knowledge and further outcome of developmental biological research. An understanding of extracellular matrix (ECM) structure and composition forms thereby a particularly significant aspect in comprehending the complex dynamics of tissue regeneration. Consequently the reconstruction of these structures offers beneficial options for advanced cell and tissue culture technology and tissue engineering. In an effort to investigate the influence of natural extracellular structures and components on embryonic stem cell and renal embryonic tissue, methodologies which allow the easy application of exogenous signals on tissue in vitro on the one hand and the straight forward evaluation of decellularization methods on the other hand, were developed. Both systems can be used to investigate and modulate behaviour of biological systems and represent novel interesting tools for tissue engineering. The novel technique for culturing tissue in vitro allows the growing of embryonic renal explants in very low volumes of medium and optimized observability, which makes it predestined for testing additives. In particular, this novel culture set up provides an ideal opportunity to investigate renal development and structure formation. Further studies indicated that the set is universally applicable on all kinds of (embryonic) tissue. Following hereon, more than 20 different ECM components were tested for their impact on kidney development under 116 different culture conditions, including different concentrations and being either bound to the substrate or dissolved in the culture medium. This allowed to study the role of ECM constituents on renal structure formation. In ongoing projects, kidney rudiments are exposed to aligned matrix fibrils and hydrogels with first promising results. The insights gained thereof gave rise to a basis for the rational application of exogenous signals in regenerative kidney therapies. Additionally new strategies for decellularization of whole murine adult kidneys were explored by applying different chemical agents. The obtained whole matrices were analysed for their degree of decellularization and their residual content and composition. In a new straight forward approach, a dependency of ECM decellularization efficiency to the different agents used for decellularization could be shown. Moreover the capability of the ECM isolated from whole adult kidneys to direct stem cell differentiation towards renal cell linage phenotypes was proved. The data obtained within this thesis give an innovative impetus to the design of biomaterial scaffolds with defined and distinct properties, offering exciting options for tissue engineering and regenerative kidney therapies by exogenous cues.

Renal tissue engineering and regenerative medicine represent a significant clinical objective because of the very limited prospect of cure after classical kidney treatment. Thus, approaches to isolate, manipulate and reintegrate structures or stimulating the selfregenerative potential of renal tissue are of special interest. Such new strategies go back to knowledge and further outcome of developmental biological research. An understanding of extracellular matrix (ECM) structure and composition forms thereby a particularly significant aspect in comprehending the complex dynamics of tissue regeneration. Consequently the reconstruction of these structures offers beneficial options for advanced cell and tissue culture technology and tissue engineering. In an effort to investigate the influence of natural extracellular structures and components on embryonic stem cell and renal embryonic tissue, methodologies which allow the easy application of exogenous signals on tissue in vitro on the one hand and the straight forward evaluation of decellularization methods on the other hand, were developed. Both systems can be used to investigate and modulate behaviour of biological systems and represent novel interesting tools for tissue engineering. The novel technique for culturing tissue in vitro allows the growing of embryonic renal explants in very low volumes of medium and optimized observability, which makes it predestined for testing additives. In particular, this novel culture set up provides an ideal opportunity to investigate renal development and structure formation. Further studies indicated that the set is universally applicable on all kinds of (embryonic) tissue. Following hereon, more than 20 different ECM components were tested for their impact on kidney development under 116 different culture conditions, including different concentrations and being either bound to the substrate or dissolved in the culture medium. This allowed to study the role of ECM constituents on renal structure formation. In ongoing projects, kidney rudiments are exposed to aligned matrix fibrils and hydrogels with first promising results. The insights gained thereof gave rise to a basis for the rational application of exogenous signals in regenerative kidney therapies. Additionally new strategies for decellularization of whole murine adult kidneys were explored by applying different chemical agents. The obtained whole matrices were analysed for their degree of decellularization and their residual content and composition. In a new straight forward approach, a dependency of ECM decellularization efficiency to the different agents used for decellularization could be shown. Moreover the capability of the ECM isolated from whole adult kidneys to direct stem cell differentiation towards renal cell linage phenotypes was proved. The data obtained within this thesis give an innovative impetus to the design of biomaterial scaffolds with defined and distinct properties, offering exciting options for tissue engineering and regenerative kidney therapies by exogenous cues.:Table of Contents LISTS OF FIGURES AND TABLES VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................VII ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................IX NOMENCLATURE ................................................................................................X 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................1 2 FUNDAMENTALS..................................................................................................2 2.1 KIDNEY DEVELOPMENT AND REGENERATION ...............................................................................2 2.1.1 Function of the kidney............................................................................................2 2.1.2 Development of the metanephric kidney ................................................................2 2.1.3 Selfregenerative potential of the kidney.................................................................5 2.2 THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX AS BIOLOGICAL SCAFFOLD ...............................................................6 2.2.1 Molecular composition of the ECM........................................................................7 2.2.1.1 An overview of the main ECM components..................................................................................8 2.2.2 Cell/tissue-matrix interactions.............................................................................12 2.2.2.1 Biochemical signals....................................................................................................................13 2.2.2.2 Mechanical signals......................................................................................................................14 2.2.2.3 Structural signals........................................................................................................................15 2.3 TISSUE ENGINEERING FOR THERAPEUTIC PURPOSES .....................................................................15 2.3.1 An overview of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.............................15 2.3.2 Biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine...........................18 2.3.2.1 Decellularization approach as tool to extract natural matrices....................................................19 2.3.3 Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine in kidney treatment.....................19 2.4 ORGAN AND TISSUE CULTURE AS TOOL FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING...................................................22 2.4.1 Common organ culture systems............................................................................24 3 OBJECTIVES AND MOTIVATION...................................................................25 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................27 4.1 A NOVEL, LOW-VOLUME METHOD FOR ORGAN CULTURE OF EMBRYONIC KIDNEYS THAT ALLOWS DEVELOPMENT OF CORTICO-MEDULLARY ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION..............................................27 4.1.1 Additional evidences (to Appendix A) for stress reduction of kidney rudiments cultured in the novel system than those grown in conventional organ culture.....28 4.1.2 Additional evidences (to Appendix A) for corticomedullary zonation and improved development of kidney rudiments cultured in the novel system for a period of 12 days......................................................................................................................30 4.1.3 Additional evidences (to Appendix A) for the application of the glass based low volume culture system for other organs................................................................32 4.2 ECM MODULATED EARLY KIDNEY DEVELOPMENT IN ORGAN CULTURE ...........................................34 4.3 ESTABLISHING AND EVALUATING DECELLULARIZATION TECHNIQUES TO ISOLATE WHOLE KIDNEY ECMS FROM ADULT MURINE KIDNEYS................................................................................................37 4.4 THE ABILITY OF WHOLE DECELLULARIZED ECM CONSTRUCTS TO INFLUENCE MURINE EMBRYONIC STEM CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND RENAL TISSUE BEHAVIOUR IN A NEW STRAIGHT FORWARD APPROACH..........38 iv 5 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.............................................................................39 5.1 SUMMARY..........................................................................................................................39 5.2 OUTLOOK...........................................................................................................................42 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................49 7 APPENDICES..........................................................................................................I 7.1 APPENDIX A: A NOVEL, LOW-VOLUME METHOD FOR ORGAN CULTURE OF EMBRYONIC KIDNEYS THAT ALLOWS DEVELOPMENT OF CORTICO-MEDULLARY ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION......................I 7.2 APPENDIX B: ECM MODULATED EARLY KIDNEY DEVELOPMENT IN EMBRYONIC ORGAN CULTURE ....XIX 7.3 APPENDIX C: THE DEWAXED ECM: AN EASY METHOD TO ANALYZE CELL BEHAVIOUR ON DECELLULARIZED EXTRACELLULAR MATRICES.......................................................................XLIV 7.4 PUBLICATIONS AND SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS......................................................................LXV 7.5 SELBSTSTÄNDIGKEITSERKLÄRUNG......................................................................................LXIX