Bei der Auslegung und Überprüfung der Betriebsweise von Fernwärmesystemen (FWS) ist eine Analyse der gesamten Prozesskette eines FWS – Erzeugung, Verteilung und Übergabe – notwendig, um eine bestmögliche Gestaltung derselben zu erreichen. Einen Ansatz zur Optimierung der Betriebsweise bietet die Modifikation des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus, dem in der Fernwärmebranche bezüglich der Wirtschaftlichkeit des Gesamtsystems eine große Bedeutung beigemessen wird. Allgemeingültige Aussagen zur Höhe dieses Einflusses lassen sich aufgrund der unterschiedlich gestalteten FWS, insbesondere für Teillastbedingungen, nicht treffen. Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt den Einfluss des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus auf die Effizienz thermodynamischer Prozesse in Anlagen der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung (KWK-Anlagen) mit Dampfturbinen sowie auf den Transportaufwand des Fernwärmewassers. Zu diesem Zweck werden die Grundlagen und der Stand des Wissens sowie wesentliche Zusammenhänge zwischen den Optimierungsstrategien und dem Fernwärmetemperaturniveau formuliert. Zur Ermittlung des elektrischen Eigenbedarfs für den Transport des Fernwärmewassers wird eine hydraulische Untersuchung vorgestellt und anhand unterschiedlicher Wärmenetzstrukturen diskutiert. Für die weitere Analyse von KWK-Anlagen mit Dampfturbinen werden methodische Hinweise und Grundlagen zur Modellierung ausgearbeitet, die anschließend auf real existierende typische KWK-Anlagen angewendet werden. Dies sind eine Gegendruckanlage, ein Kombikraftwerk und eine Entnahme-Kondensations-Anlage. Zur Modellüberprüfung werden Mess- und Simulationswerte von ausgewählten Lastgängen sowie für den gesamten Lastbereich gegenübergestellt. Zur Bewertung der Energieeffizienz von FWS unter Berücksichtigung des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus werden zwei Methoden abgeleitet. Eine differentielle, auf den Lastpunkt bezogene Bewertung mittels temperaturabhängiger Kraftwerkskennlinien und eine integrative Bewertung, bei der unterschiedliche Betriebsweisen über einen definierten Zeitraum einbezogen werden. An ausführlichen Beispielen werden deren Anwendung und Eignung sowie der Einfluss des Fernwärmetemperaturniveaus diskutiert. Abschließend wird die Wirtschaftlichkeit von 3 ausgewählten Maßnahmen durch Anwendung der integrativen Bewertung vorgestellt. / In order to achieve the best possible end-to-end design of a district heating system, any dimensioning and examining of operating regimes of district heating systems requires an analysis of the entire process chain ranging from generation via distribution to heat delivery. One of the options to optimise an operating regime is to modify the district heating temperature level, a parameter to which great importance is attached in the district heating industry with a view to the economics of the overall system. The differences in the design of district heating systems do not allow issuing any universally valid statements on how strong this influence is, especially for conditions of part load. The present paper looks into the influence of the district heating temperature level on the efficiency of thermodynamic processes in combined heat and power (CHP) plants using steam turbines, and on the expenditure of district heating water transport. For this purpose, it states the fundamentals and current level of knowledge, as well as important connections between the optimisation strategies used and the district heating temperature level. In view of calculating the auxiliary power required to transport district heating water, a hydraulic analysis will be presented and discussed, with several different structures of district heating systems being used for illustration. For a more advanced analysis of CHP plants using steam turbines, methodological information and modelling basics will be described and then applied to typical CHP plants existing in reality. These are a backpressure plant, a combined-cycle gas turbine plant and an extraction condensing plant. To validate the model, measured and simulated data of selected load cycles as well as the entire load range will be compared. Two methods of assessing the energy efficiency of district heating systems in consideration of the district heating temperature level will be derived: a differential assessment related to the duty point and using temperature-dependent power plant characteristic curves, and an integrative assessment where several different operating regimes are included over a pre-defined period of time. Detailed examples will be discussed to illustrate the application and suitability of these assessments as well as the influence of the district heating temperature level. Finally, the economics of selected steps applying the integrative assessment will be highlighted.

In the international context, this research analyzes the state of the art of scientific discussion, the action exerted by national and local governments through regulations, and the opinion of professionals in the field of construction of buildings in relation to the implementation of energy efficiency measures in buildings. In general, the interest in the different areas has been driven primarily by: 1) the worldwide increased energy consumption in buildings, emphasizes by an increasingly urbanized world and the resource scarcity for power generation, primarily fossil fuels; 2) the increase in greenhouse gas emissions related to the buildings' construction and operation; and 3) the thermal behaviour of the building's envelope, which determines the energy demand for thermal conditioning; mainly for heating in winter and cooling in summer. The foregoing has resulted in the implementation of different types of energy efficiency measures in the building sector around the world. On the one hand, through mandatory measures, driven by national and local governments through building codes; mandatory measures require that when building a new building or refurbishing an existing one, the architects, private developers, or builders must comply with building standards that govern the thermal performance of the different elements of the buildings' thermal envelope. On the other hand, by implementing voluntary measures, such as international certification systems, established by non-governmental institutions, aimed at legitimizing the efforts of building owners, design teams, and builders to design, build, and operate buildings in an environmentally friendly way. The latter has triggered an international trend and an increasing demand for certification of the so-called "green buildings". Such independent certification systems seek to reduce the environmental impact of activities in the construction sector. In the Chilean context, this research analyzes the relationship between two main pillars of the Chilean economy, the energy sector and the private housing sector. Particularly, this research focuses on the implementation of energy efficiency measures in the private housing market in Santiago, the Chilean capital. From the energy perspective, the high vulnerability for power generation by the dependence on the provision of gas from neighbouring countries and periods of drought affecting hydroelectric power generation, has led to the Chilean government intervention. Government intervention is centred on two main lines of action: 1) the diversification of the country's energy matrix, through the implementation of alternative systems for power generation based on non-conventional renewable energy sources; and 2) the implementation of energy efficiency measures. In the construction sector, the latter is expressed by the entry into force of the New Thermal Regulations for new residential buildings in three stages in the building code since 2000. With the implementation of new regulations in the construction sector in the Chilean context and the growing demand for green building in the international context, private real estate companies and construction companies, which are the backbone of the construction sector in Chile, have reacted by offering energy efficient real estate products in Santiago de Chile. Based on the foregoing, arises the main question leading this doctoral thesis: How do real estate developers apply energy efficiency in their housing offer in Santiago de Chile? The main research question is further refined by three sub questions: 1) who are the real estate developers that are adopting energy efficiency and why? This is a compound question, first it seeks to identify real estate companies adopting energy efficiency measures in Santiago de Chile’s private housing market; then it looks into the motivations for doing so; 2) what types of energy efficiency measures are real estate companies adopting? This sub-research question seeks to identify the adopted residential energy efficiency strategies; and 3) which barriers to further implementation of energy efficiency exist? It seeks to identify the setbacks found by energy efficiency adopters in the implementation process, in order to understand local issues in the adoption process. The Case Study and Selection of Sub-Cases for the Analysis The research focuses on the voluntary implementation of residential energy efficiency measures in the private housing market; moreover, it analyzes the case of Santiago de Chile. Therefore, the focus is set on real estate companies that offer energy efficient housing in their offer for real estate products in the metropolitan region. The selection of embedded sub-cases for the analysis, or sub-cases, was made by applying a criterion sampling strategy known as purposive sampling. For this, a thorough review of 568 private real estate companies' websites, offering different real estate products in the Metropolitan Region of Santiago de Chile between June and July 2011, was performed. Out of this group, a set of 45 companies that offering energy efficient homes mentioned were selected. Later on, personal interviews mainly with general managers of real estate development companies and other actors considered key informants because of their knowledge in the field, such as scholars, representatives from public institutions, other public and private research centres, and practitioners, were conducted between April and May 2012. Main Methods and Data Analysis Research is conducted under a qualitative approach, as it focuses primarily on the opinion of real estate companies’ CEOs and other key informants considered information rich when helping answering the research questions. The main tool for data analysis was the thematic content analysis. Main Findings The main results of this research are structured on the basis of the answering the secondary research questions or sub-questions. Who are the real estate developers that are adopting energy efficiency and why? As it was mentioned above, the first part of this compound sub-question seeks to identify the real estate companies that are implementing residential energy efficiency measures in their offer in the housing market in Santiago de Chile. A set of 45 real estate companies were identified because they mentioned to be applying some sort of energy efficiency measures. This was a rather small group since, at that time, 568 real estate companies were offering housing products. Based on the empirical findings, a categorization of real estate companies following the Roger’s model was conducted. Thus, real estate companies were categorized depending on when they began adopting residential energy efficiency measures in their housing offer. The three stages of the New Thermal Regulation issued for the housing sector in Chile were selected as time-milestones for defining the adopter categories. Accordingly, three main categories emerged following Roger’s model. 1) Innovators, includes real estate companies who adopted energy efficiency measures for the first time before the entry into force of the first stage of the NRT in 2000; 2) Early Adopters, groups real estate companies who adopted residential energy efficiency measures for the first time between the first and second stage of the New Thermal Regulation, that is to say between 2001 and 2007; and 3) Early Majority, includes real estate companies who began to apply residential energy efficiency measures starting in 2008, meaning after the second stage of New Thermal Regulation came into force. The empirical evidence suggests that the adoption process of energy efficiency measures has started following the normal development described by Rogers' innovation curve. Therefore, it is expected that the rest of the real estate developers operating in the private housing market in Santiago de Chile will eventually follow the Innovators, Early Adopters, and Early Majority categories. This is mainly due to the recent introduction of thermal regulation by the government and because the housing market is a highly competitive market, in which none of the players can risk to be left behind. The second part of the sub-research question, and probably the most important one, seeks to understand the motivations for real estate companies to offer and implement energy-efficient real estate products in Santiago de Chile’s private housing market. This research identifies the motivations of real estate development companies in the opinion of their managers collected in personal semi-structured interviews conducted during fieldwork. Based on the thematic analysis of the abovementioned interviews, four categories of motivations for offering and applying energy efficiency were identified based on the company managers’ opinion. These categories, in order of preference are: 1) Market Differentiation Strategies (Competitiveness and Trending); 2) Company Policies (Client-Oriented Policies, Innovation Policies, and Environmentally-friendly Policies); 3) Resource efficiency (Reduction of Household\'s Expenses and Concerns for Energy Scarcity); and 4) Government Incentive Schemes (Subsidies to the Use of Renewable Energy). Briefly, the main motivations for adopting energy efficiency measures in the private housing offer are related to marketing strategies. In general, real estate companies operating in Santiago de Chile are looking to distinguish themselves from their competitors by offering energy-efficient housing products. This is mainly because real estate companies are following a trend that is driven by several factors such as: local energy shortage periods, the international influence of green buildings in the real estate market, and the growing demand for international certifications in the Chilean context. What types of energy efficiency measures are real estate companies adopting? As mentioned earlier, this research identifies real estate companies offering energy-efficient housing in the private real estate market of Santiago de Chile who implemented a diversity of energy efficiency strategies in their housing supply, as the empirical evidence shows. Although the motivations for implementing energy efficiency measures are diverse (as described previously), energy efficiency measures are mainly implemented in order to reach a comfort temperature inside the dwelling, making all possible efforts to ensure that energy is used efficiently. In the case of the residential buildings, this means looking for the optimal use of energy for space heating or cooling, lighting, hot sanitary water, and ventilation. In general, depending on whether there is the need to make an additional energy effort in order to achieve optimum indoor comfort conditions, the energy efficiency measures implemented in the private housing sector in Santiago de Chile can be grouped into two main categories of energy efficiency strategies: passive design strategies and active design strategies. On the one hand, passive design strategies refer to what real estate developers are doing to reduce the energy consumption of their housing buildings. Such strategies include: 1) improving the overall thermal performance of the building envelope; 2) the use of renewable energy, mainly solar thermal and photovoltaic technology, for hot sanitary water and energy conversion respectively; and 3) bioclimatic design and construction principles. As it was mentioned in Section 6.1, a basic characteristic of passive design strategies, distinguishing them from active design strategies, is that in order to operate they rely on the building site and the inherited thermal properties of the building materials used in the different housing building typologies. On the other hand, active design strategies refer to the technological innovations implemented in order to maintain an optimal indoor thermal conditioning and to reduce the energy used in the different buildings’ systems; namely, 1) illumination systems; 2) heating systems; 3) centralized control systems; and 4) air conditioning systems. In general, real estate developers adopted active design strategies as a complement to the use of passive design strategies. Not surprisingly, real estate developers have mentioned the improvement of the thermal envelope as the most commonly used residential energy efficiency strategy. This results from the fact that internationally and in Chile, regulations in the housing sector were implemented in order to improve the thermal behaviour of dwellings, and therefore, their energy efficiency. Finally, a third type of energy efficiency strategy adopted by real estate developers in Santiago de Chile is the result of a public-private partnership between the Chilean Government and the Chilectra, the local electricity utility. The initiative is called “Chilectra – Full Electric Buildings” and it offers an optional electrical energy tariff for residential consumers. This strategy is further explained in Section 6.3. Which barriers to further implementation of energy efficiency exist? Based on the opinion of the various key stakeholder involved in this research, this research shows that most barriers to energy efficiency in the private housing sector in Santiago de Chile interact and strengthen each other. The classification of barriers to further implementation of energy efficiency is not straightforward. Nonetheless, in the opinion of real estate companies’ managers, the barriers to adopting energy efficiency measures in the private housing market in Santiago de Chile revolve around the specific characteristics of the local social system. These barriers are: 1) market barriers; 2) organizational barriers; 3) institutional barriers; and 4) behavioural barriers. In relation to the categorization of energy efficiency adopters identified in the first sub-question, the empirical evidence seems to indicate that, not all the barriers play the same role for all adopter categories. In general, market barriers are most relevant to the innovators group. Although most of the real estate developers mentioned that even today the local market and the local construction industry are not ready to provide adequate support (both in the availability of products and services) for further development of the market for energy efficient construction, the deficiency was greater 20 years ago, when the innovators first started to implement residential energy efficiency measures in the private housing sector. Moreover, the other barriers encountered (namely organizational and institutional barriers) are transversal to the adopter categories. This seems to drawn from the organizational and institutional characteristics of the context in which private real estate companies operate. The context remains constant over time and their internal relationships are also maintained, homogeneously affecting all adopter categories. Finally, barriers related to end users and/or clients’ behaviour are mainly listed by early majority adopters, which comprises developers who implement residential energy efficiency measures recently (after 2000). Apparently, this results mainly from the fact that end user are lacking information about the benefits (general and local) to be gained from implementing residential energy efficiency measures.:Acknowledgements ... p.5 Abstract ... p.7 Contents ... p.13 List of Figures... p.17 List of Tables ... p.19 List of Abbreviations ... p.21 1 Introduction ... p.27 1.1 Problem Statement ... p.27 1.2 Rationale and Aims of the Research ... p.31 1.3 Thesis Structure ... p.34 2 The Construction Sector at the Heart of the Chile\'s Energy Challenges ... p.37 2.1 The Chilean Construction Sector ... p.37 2.1.1 Background and Regulatory Framework ... p.38 2.1.2 Local Supply for Construction Services ... p.41 2.1.3 Demand for Construction Services ... p.47 2.2 The Private Housing Market in Santiago de Chile ... p.50 2.2.1 Characterisation of the Housing Demand ... p.51 2.2.2 Local Land Market and Housing Market Dynamics ... p.60 2.2.3 The Role of the State ... p.61 2.3 Chile’s Energy Challenge ... p.64 2.4 Raising Questions ... p.69 3 Research Design and Methods ... p.73 3.1 Research Design ... p.73 3.2 Sampling and Sub-cases Selection ... p.76 3.3 Primary Data Collection ... p.81 3.4 Data Analysis ... p.88 3.4.1 Transcription ... p.88 3.4.2 Interview Analysis ... p.90 3.4.3 Document Analysis ... p.93 3.5 Identification of Key Stakeholders and Interview Partners ... p.96 4 Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential Buildings ... p.99 4.1 Defining Energy Efficiency – The Wider Context ... p.100 4.2 Government-initiated Instruments – Building Codes and Energy Standards ... p.103 4.2.1 Regulatory Instruments ... p.104 4.2.2 Types of Regulations ... p.109 4.2.3 Thermal Zoning ... p.113 4.2.4 Information Instruments ... p.115 4.2.5 Economic Incentive Schemes ... p.121 4.2.6 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Systems ... p.123 4.2.7 Renewable Energy ... p.125 4.3 Voluntary Instruments – Beyond the Building Codes ... p.128 4.3.1 The Shift Towards Green Buildings ... p.128 4.3.2 Green Building Certification Systems ... p.131 4.4 Regulatory Instruments in the Chilean Context ... p.148 4.4.1 Energy Efficiency in the National Energy Policy Making ... p.148 4.4.2 The Institutional Framework ... p.151 4.4.3 Energy Efficiency Standards in the Chilean Housing Sector ... p.155 4.5 Voluntary Instruments in Santiago de Chile ... p.161 4.5.1 Existing Certification Schemes ... p.161 4.5.2 Public-private Partnership ... p.164 4.6 Why Would Real Estate Companies Act Green? ... p.166 5 The Adoption of Energy Efficiency in the Private Housing Market in Santiago de Chile ... p.171 5.1 Energy Efficiency Adopters in the Private Housing Market ... p.172 5.1.1 Innovators ... p.174 5.1.2 Early Adopters ... p.175 5.2 Motivations for Applying Residential Energy Efficiency Measures ... p.179 5.2.1 Market Differentiation Strategies ... p.180 5.2.2 Company Policies ... p.182 5.2.3 Resource Efficiency ... p.186 5.2.4 Government Incentive Schemes ... p.191 6 Existing Residential Energy Efficiency Strategies ... p.195 6.1 Passive Design Strategies ... p.196 6.2 Active Design Strategies ... p.208 6.3 Public-Private Partnership ... p.212 7 Barriers to Implementing Residential Energy Efficiency Strategies ... p.217 7.1 Market Barriers ... p.218 7.2 Organizational Barriers ... p.226 7.3 Institutional Barriers ... p.229 7.4 Behavioural Barriers ... p.231 7.5 Central Challenges for the Adoption of Energy Efficiency ... p.235 8 Discussion of the Results and Implications ... p.239 8.1 Summary of Findings ... p.239 8.2 Discussion and Implications ... p.245 8.3 Recommendations ... p.250 8.4 Further Research ... p.257 References ... p.261 Annex ... p.279

Rund 70 % der Energieaufnahme von elektrischen Antriebssystemen wird von quasistationären Antrieben in Transportanlagen hervorgerufen. Eine gesteigerte Energieeffizienz führt neben reduzierten Energiekosten zu weiteren Nutzeffekten, wie z.B. einem verringerten Kühlaufwand, einem kleinerem Bauraum und einer höheren Lebensdauer der Komponenten. Zur Steigerung der Energieeffizienz dieser Transportanlagen werden in dieser Arbeit Methoden zur Auslegung der zugehörigen Antriebssysteme unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Förderprozesses erarbeitet. Als repräsentative Transportanwendungen werden Pumpen- und Förderbandanlagen untersucht. Dabei wird das gesamte elektromechanische System analysiert, um das volle Energiesparpotenzial zu erfassen – beginnend mit dem Lastprofil des transportierten Förderguts bis hin zur elektrischen Energieversorgung. Hierzu werden alle Systemkomponenten modelliert, um die Verluste in verschiedenen Betriebspunkten im Volllast- und Teillastbereich abzuschätzen. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt die Erarbeitung praktikabler Projektierungshinweise und prozessspezifischer Auswahldiagramme, welche eine schnelle Vorauswahl der energieeffizientesten Antriebstopologie ermöglichen. Da die Verlustmodelle auf frei zugänglichen Datenblattangaben basieren, können die vorgestellten Methoden und Auswahlkriterien bereits in einem frühen Projektierungsstadium zur Auslegung einer energieeffizienten Transportanlage angewandt werden.

Current Intel processors implement a variety of power saving features like frequency scaling and idle states. These mechanisms limit the power draw and thereby decrease the thermal dissipation of the processors. However, they also have an impact on the achievable performance. The various mechanisms significantly differ regarding the amount of power savings, the latency of mode changes, and the associated overhead. In this paper, we describe and closely examine the so-called software controlled clock modulation mechanism for different processor generations. We present results that imply that the available documentation is not always correct and describe when this feature can be used to improve energy efficiency. We additionally compare it against the more popular feature of dynamic voltage and frequency scaling and develop a model to decide which feature should be used to optimize inter-process synchronizations on Intel Haswell-EP processors.

The work in hand considers energy efficiency of data transmission in wireless networks with low data rate (=sensor networks). Often the network nodes are battery operated thus calling for node lifetimes of months or even years. Thus, energy efficiency becomes an important optimisation criteria when designing hardware as well as for the physical transmission, protocol design etc. In order to meet the tight energy constraints, it is necessary to optimise the system as a whole, not just single parameters. This work first shows a derived analysis model for calculating the energy consumption during data transmission. This model is based on a complex state diagram which is evaluated using Mason rules. Using this model the impact of individual parameters on the energy consumption can be computed. Herein the interference of other nodes is included as well. The individual parameters investigated include detection method, modulation scheme, error correction and channel access. The main conclusion is, that higher transmit power can yield decreased energy consumption if the time, which nodes spend in the energy intense active mode, is reduced. Ultra-Wideband-transmission (UWB) using short pulses (Impulse Radio-IR) is currently developing. The potential of this technology is a very simple power-efficient transmitter. Moreover, due to the short pulses, transmission time is short. These two facts promise an energy efficient operation in transmit mode. Nevertheless, performance of simple receivers is still quite low, especially in multi-path environments. Moreover there is the need of powerful synchronisation algorithms. Sensor networks usually possess multi-hop functionality. However, only in severe (block) fading channels multi-hop is more energy efficient than direct transmission. Supposed the transmit power is the same for all nodes, then the transmit power has to be dimensioned for the weakest link. Then, under certain conditions, cooperative relaying schemes can not capitalize the spatial diversity gain. - (This manuscript is also available - in the form of a book - from Dresden: Vogt (Verlag), ISBN:3-938860-02-2) / Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Energieeffizienz der Datenübertragung in Funknetzwerken mit geringer Datenrate (=Sensornetzwerke). Die Netzknoten solcher Netzwerke sind zumeist batteriebetrieben und sollen Betriebsdauern von Monaten bis Jahren erreichen. Daher ist Energieeffizienz ein wichtiges Designmerkmal sowohl beim Hardwareentwurf als auch bei der physikalischen Übertragung, im Protokolldesign usw. Um den energetischen Beschränkungen gerecht zu werden, sollen nicht Einzelparameter optimiert werden, sondern das System insgesamt. In dieser Arbeit wird zunächst ein Analysemodell zur Berechnung des Energieverbrauchs bei der Datenübertragung entwickelt, welches diesen Forderungen gerecht wird. Dieses basiert auf einem komplexen Zustandsdiagramm, welches mit der Mason'schen Regel ausgewertet wird. Dieses Modell nutzend, kann der Einfluss von Einzelparametern auf den Energieverbrauch unter Berücksichtigung der Interferenzen anderer Netzknoten berechnet werden. Als Einzelparameter werden exemplarisch Detektionsverfahren, Modulation, Fehlerschutzkodierung und Kanalzugriff untersucht. Die Grunderkenntnis dieser Betrachtungenen ist, dass höhere Sendeleistungen zu geringerem Energieverbrauch führen, wenn dadurch die Zeit des Netzknotens im energieintensiven Aktiv-Mode verkürzt wird. Ultra-Wideband-Verfahren (UWB) mittels kurzen Pulsen (IR-UWB) befinden sich noch in einer frühen Entwickungsstufe. Das Potential liegt in einem sehr einfachen Senderaufbau, der sehr leistungseffiziente Sender ermöglicht. Aufgrund der kurzen Pulse ist zudem die Übertragungszeit sehr gering. Diese beiden Gegebenheiten lassen auf einen geringen Energieverbrauch hoffen. Allerdings ist die Leistungsfähigkeit von einfachen Empfängern insbesondere in Mehrwegekanälen sehr gering. Desweiteren gibt es noch intensiven Forschungsbedarf für leistungsfähige Synchronisationsalgorithmen. Sensornetzwerke verfügen im Allgemeinen über Multi-Hop-Funktionalität. Energetisch betrachtet, ist deren Einsatz aber nur in starken Blockschwundkanälen sinnvoll. Wird die Sendeleistung aller Netzknoten als konstant angenommen, muss die Sendeleistung auf die schwächste Verbindung dimensioniert werden. Bei kooperativen Vermittlungsverfahren kann dadurch unter bestimmten Bedingungen der räumliche Diversitätsgewinn nicht genutzt werden. - (Die Dissertation ist veröffentlicht im Verlag Vogt, Dresden, ISBN:3-938860-02-2)

Die elektrische Energieform gewinnt im Kraftfahrzeug wegen ihrer Nutzungsvielfalt und sehr guten Steuerbarkeit für die Realisierung neuartiger Funktionen zunehmend an Bedeutung. Voraussetzung für ihren Einsatz ist eine zuverlässige und effiziente Bereitstellung durch das Kfz-Energiebordnetz. Dafür ist ein intelligentes Energiemanagement erforderlich, welches mit geeigneten Strategien die Leistungsflüsse im Energiesystem koordiniert. In dieser Arbeit werden die beiden Entwurfsziele der Zuverlässigkeit und der Effizienz bei der Entwicklung von elektrischen Energiemanagement-Strategien systematisch betrachtet. Es erfolgt eine Beschreibung und Zuordnung der einzelnen Ziele und Maßnahmen anhand der Energieflüsse und Wirkungsketten. Ein Schwerpunkt bildet dabei die Beherrschung von Lastwechseln im Bordnetz. Für Aussagen hinsichtlich einer effizienten Erzeugung elektrischer Energie erfolgt eine Untersuchung der Energiewandlungskette anhand analytischer Methoden und mit Hilfe einer simulationsgestützten Optimierung. Ein weiterer Fokus der Arbeit liegt in der Betrachtung zur Anwendung ökonomischer Modelle für eine Energiekoordination. Es werden die theoretischen Grundlagen der Mikroökonomie zusammengestellt und mögliche Funktionsstrukturen eines einseitigen und zweiseitigen Allokationsmechanismus verglichen und bewertet. Abschließend zeigen experimentelle Untersuchungen an einem Bordnetzprüfstand zum Lastwechselverhalten und die Integration eines Energiemanagement-Systems den praktischen Bezug zum realen System.

This paper aims to show that controlled hydraulic drives, when properly considered and approached, are a technology that allows for a systematic and safe system design with regard to performance and energy efficiency. Controlled hydraulic drives are predestinated to be an indispensable alternative to electromechanical drives for many fields of application, especially against the background of Industry 4.0. But hydraulic drives will only be able to play this role if they see themselves as a part of mechatronics, speak the language of mechatronics and recognize the increasing importance of electric drives as part of the hydraulic toolbox as a chance.

Vacuum handling is a widespread technology in automated production systems for gripping of workpieces. Unfortunately, this solution accounts for a considerable share of industrial energy consumption. This consumption is mainly due to the losses in the involved steps like air compression, distribution, vacuum generation and gripper suction. However, the energy efficiency of vacuum handling systems is still relatively unexplored. The consortium partners are working together in the BiVaS project, which is funded by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi). In this project, the drawback of high energy consumption is approached by the development of an energyefficient ejector, a biomimetic suction gripper as well as on system integration and the development of energy-efficient operating strategies and their energetic balancing in order to reduce the consumption of compressed air by 20 %. This reduction will be quantified experimentally in a pilot plant benchmark, where a realistic handling process is developed and examined. This paper shows the state of the art focusing on energy consumption of vacuum handling technology and the behaviour of the involved components during different handling operations. Furthermore, first biomimetic concepts and an estimation of the increase of energy efficiency will be presented for the running project.

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht wie rationale Entscheidungsfindungen in Transformationsländern katalysiert werden können, indem durch den Fokus auf die internationale Wertschöpfungskette Synergieeffekte zwischen den Unternehmen genutzt und in deren Folge die Transaktionskosten, für Investitionsentscheidungen in energieeffiziente Technologien und Prozesse zur Erfüllung der Emissionsreduktionen, gesenkt werden können. Es wird das Wirken der Marktmechanismen analysiert und der Fokus auf die Transformationstheorie sowie die Ingenieurwissenschaften gelegt. Das Supply Chain Management, als anwendungsorientierte Realwissenschaft mit expliziter Ausrichtung auf Wertschöpfungsprozesse, wird in Bezug auf strategische Investitionsentscheidungen im Allgemeinen und Investitionen in Energieeffizienzmaßnahmen im Speziellen, weiterentwickelt. Mit Hilfe einer empirisch basierten Fallstudie werden die abgeleiteten Erkenntnisse einer kritischen Prüfung unterzogen und beispielhaft dargestellt, wie das entwickelte Entscheidungsmodell eingesetzt werden kann.:Inhaltsverzeichnis Geleitwort ................................................................................................................ III Danksagung ............................................................................................................ IV Inhaltsverzeichnis ...................................................................................................... V Formelverzeichnis .................................................................................................... XI Abkürzungsverzeichnis............................................................................................. XII Teil A Konzeption der Arbeit...................................................................................... 16 1 Einführung – Integrierte Klima- und Energiepolitik und Entscheidungstheorie .. 16 2 Problemstellung...................................................................................... 25 3 Zielsetzung der Arbeit.............................................................................. 27 4 Wissenschaftstheoretische Fundierung und Methodischer Aufbau der Arbeit .. 30 4.1 Zur wissenschaftlichen Fundierung der Arbeit ................................................... 30 4.2 Aufbau der Arbeit und Beitrag zum wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnisfortschritt .......... 34 Teil B Theoretischer Bezugsrahmen........................................................................... 40 5 Basale Begriffe und Definitionen ............................................................... 40 5.1 Kohlenstoffdioxid und andere Treibhausgase .................................................... 40 5.2 Der Effizienzbegriff ........................................................................................ 44 5.3 Energie-Effizienz-Indikatoren .......................................................................... 47 5.4 Unternehmensrelevante Normen..................................................................... 52 5.5 Theoretischer Ansatz des Supply Chain Managements ...................................... 55 5.6 Transformationsländer und Systemtransformation ............................................. 62 5.6.1 Zum Begriff des Transformationslandes ..................................................... 62 5.6.2 Ökonomische Systemtransformation in Transformationsländern.................... 66 5.6.3 Bedeutung der Energieeffizienz in der polnischen Industrie im Rahmen des Transformationsprozesses ....................................................................... 71 5.6.4 Die Industrie Rumäniens unter energetischem Gesichtspunkt ....................... 74 5.7 Transaktionskostentheorie.............................................................................. 78 5.7.1 Die Transaktionskostentheorie im Rahmen der Neuen Institutionentheorie ..... 78 5.7.2 Transaktionskosten im Rahmen des Emissionshandels................................ 83 5.8 System -und Entscheidungstheorie.................................................................. 85 5.8.1 Grundlagen der System– und Entscheidungstheorie.................................... 85 5.8.2 Betriebswirtschaftliche Entscheidungstheorie.............................................. 90 5.8.2.1 Zum Problembegriff....................................................................................90 5.8.2.2 Alternativenkonfiguration............................................................................92 5.8.2.3 Präferenzmodellierung ...............................................................................94 5.8.3 Unternehmenspolitische Entscheidungsansätze.......................................... 96 5.8.3.1 Argumentenbilanz ......................................................................................96 5.8.3.2 Nutzwertanalyse.........................................................................................97 5.8.3.3 Portfolioanalyse..........................................................................................99 VI 5.8.4 Die Entscheidungsorientierte Betriebswirtschaftslehre................................ 102 5.8.5 Modellklassen ...................................................................................... 109 5.8.6 Entscheidungsregeln............................................................................. 112 5.8.6.1 Entscheidungsregeln bei Unsicherheit .....................................................116 5.8.6.1.1 Minimax-Entscheidungsregel.............................................................116 5.8.6.1.2 Maximax- Entscheidungsregel...........................................................116 5.8.6.1.3 Hurwicz-Entscheidungsregel (Pessimissmus-Optimismus-Regel) .....117 5.8.6.1.4 Savage-Niehans-Entscheidungsregel................................................118 5.8.6.1.5 Laplace-Entscheidungsregel .............................................................119 5.8.6.2 Entscheidungsregeln bei Risiko ...............................................................121 5.8.6.2.1 Erwartungswert-Regel .......................................................................121 5.8.6.2.2 μ -σ -Regel.......................................................................................121 5.8.6.2.3 Bernoulli-Regel..................................................................................122 5.8.6.2.4 Entscheidungsbaum..........................................................................123 5.8.7 Anforderungen an ein Entscheidungsmodell ............................................. 125 Teil C Energieeffizienzstrategien: Europäische Union versus Transformationsländer ...... 128 6 Integrierte Ansätze zur Energieeffizienzsteigerung in Transformationsländern128 6.1 Emissionshandel als marktorientierter Mechanismus zur Effizienzerhöhung ........ 128 6.2 Ordnungspolitik versus Marktmechanismen – Kohlenstoffdioxidsteuer und Handel mit Emissionsrechten............................................................................................... 131 6.3 Die flexiblen Mechanismen des Kyoto -Protokolls ............................................ 136 6.3.1 Clean development mechanism.............................................................. 141 6.3.2 Joint Implementation ............................................................................. 143 6.4 Unternehmensstrategien unter cap – and trade Regulierung ............................. 152 Teil D Energieeffizienzinvestitionen entlang der Wertschöpfungskette........................... 156 7 Herausarbeitung des Handlungsbedarfes für Investitionen in Energieeffizienztechnologien – das ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell ....................... 156 7.1 Anforderungen an das ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell............................... 156 7.2 Das ENEFFTECH-Strukturmodell .................................................................. 157 7.3 Datenmodellierung im ENEFFTECH-Strukturmodell......................................... 158 7.3.1 Grundsätze der Datenmodellierung im ENEFFTECH-Strukturmodell............ 158 7.3.2 Informationsarchitektur und Prozessgestaltung für Strategisches Supply Chain Management ........................................................................................ 160 7.3.3 Datenmodell – Informationsebene ........................................................... 166 7.3.4 Datenmodell - Datenerfassungebene....................................................... 169 7.3.5 Datenmodell - Entscheidungsebene ........................................................ 171 7.3.5.1 Vorgaben zur Berechnung........................................................................171 7.3.5.2 Investitionsalternativen.............................................................................172 7.3.5.3 Umweltzustände.......................................................................................173 7.4 Abgrenzung von Bilanzräumen...................................................................... 174 7.5 Formulierung des Entscheidungsproblems...................................................... 178 7.6 Identifizierung von Handlungsalternativen auf Unternehmensebene ................... 183 7.7 Ableitung von Aussagen auf Branchenebene .................................................. 190 VII 7.7.1 Mikro-Makro-Link (MML) ........................................................................ 190 7.7.2 Erfassung relevanter Daten zur Ableitung von Branchenaussagen............... 194 7.7.3 Erweiterung des Ansatzes auf Emissionsreduzierende Energieeffizienzsteigerung ..................................................................... 199 7.7.4 Bewertung des ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell und Vergleich mit anderen Entscheidungsmethoden........................................................................ 203 8 Modelltest: Fallstudie zum ENEFFTECH-Entscheidungsmodell ................... 205 8.1 Energieeffizienzinvestionen entlang der Supply Chain am Beispiel eines mittelständischen Energieversorgers..................................................................... 205 8.1.1 Allgemeine Informationen und Rahmenbedingungen ................................. 205 8.1.2 Auswahl des Kooperationspartners der Stadtwerke ENEFFTECH-Stadt GmbH... .......................................................................................................... 206 8.1.3 Rahmenbedingungen hinsichtlich des Emissionshandels............................ 208 8.1.4 Auswahl der Wertschöpfungspartner ....................................................... 211 8.2 Lösungsansätze unter Nutzung des Supply Chain Managements ...................... 212 8.2.1 Systematisierung der Investitionsalternativen............................................ 212 8.2.2 Ableitung der Investitionsentscheidung .................................................... 217 Teil E Zusammenfassung und Schlussbetrachtungen ................................................. 220 9 Zusammenfassung und Fazit der Arbeit ................................................... 220 9.1 Zusammenfassende Einschätzung ................................................................ 220 9.2 Quo Vadis? - Ableitung des weiteren Forschungsbedarfes................................ 225 Symbole, Einheiten und Umrechnungen ................................................................... 227 Glossar ................................................................................................................ 229 Literatur- und Quellenverzeichnis............................................................................. 244 Anhang ................................................................................................................ 276

Auf dem Gebiet der mobilen Arbeitsmaschinen und Nutzfahrzeuge zeigen aktuelle Arbeiten weltweit ein verstärktes Interesse an leistungsverzweigten Antriebskonzepten auf Basis elektrischer und hydraulischer Hybridlösungen. Die Kombination beider Technologien verspricht wartungsarme, energieeffiziente Antriebssyteme mit hoher Steuer- und Regelbarbeit sowie hoher Kraftdichte. Die primär erzeugte mechanische Antriebsleistung der Wärmekraftmaschine kann meist für die Arbeitsprozesse und zur Versorgung zugehöriger Hilfsfunktionen nicht direkt verwendet werden. Diese muss je nach Anforderungen gewandelt bzw. angepasst oder bedarfsgerecht mittels zusätzlichen, wiederaufladbaren Speichern bereitgestellt werden. Solche hybriden Lösungsansätze führen jedoch gegenüber konventionellen Antrieben zu einer steigenden Komplexität sowie einem erhöhten technischen Aufwand. Nach dem Stand der Technik erfolgt die Erzeugung hydraulischer und elektrischer Leistung mit Hilfe mindestens dreier Komponenten: Verbrennungsmotor, Hydraulikpumpe und Generator. Für künftige antriebstechnische Innovationen ist daher aus funktionellen und energetischen Gründen ein einfaches, preiswertes Primäraggregat zur gleichzeitigen, bedarfsgerechten Bereitstellung hydraulischer und elektrischer Leistung wünschenswert, welches unnötige Umwandlungsverluste vermeidet und zusätzlich Kosten spart. Das Forschungsprojekt „Theoretische Grundlagen zur Verknüpfung von thermohydraulischer und thermoelektrischer Leistungswandlung in einem Aggregat – Thermohydraulischer Lineargenerator“ befasst sich mit einer belastbaren Abschätzung der technischen Realisierbarkeit und des technischen Aufwands eines derartigen neuen Antriebskonzeptes mit frei wählbarer Bereitstellung hydraulischer und elektrischer Leistung auf Basis des Freikolbenprinzips. Die grundlegenden Untersuchungen widmen sich der Kopplung zweier unterschiedlicher Leistungswandlungen, einer stabilen Prozessführung sowie der Analyse und Bewertung der physikalischen Prozessgrößen in Bezug auf eine zukünftige Auslegung eines Prototyps. Der Beitrag erklärt das Grundkonzept, zeigt den aktuellen Stand des Projekts auf und stellt die zum gegenwärtigen Zeitpunkt vorliegenden Ergebnisse vor.