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Thesis advisor: Audrey A. Friedman / English learners (ELs) in US K-12 classrooms are falling behind their peers as they struggle to develop the proficiency needed to succeed in an academic setting (NCELA, 2012). The majority of teacher preparation programs are not preparing teacher candidates (TCs) with the skills needed to help recently mainstreamed ELs succeed in their content area classrooms (Bunch, 2011). This study examined how one undergraduate, secondary education teacher candidates who had participated in supplemental trainings developed their ability to recognize linguistic demand, shelter instruction, and promote academic language proficiency. Using a Sequential Mixed Design (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2006), this longitudinal study examined the journals and lesson plans submitted by 31 undergraduate, secondary education TCs as they progressed through their prepractica. Six of these TCs were followed as case studies, with observations and interviews collected during their full practica. Collective data analysis indicates that TCs scored higher on all measures when they were in a linguistically diverse classroom. Furthermore, recognition of linguistic demand precedes ability to plan instruction: many TCs were able to recognize linguistic demand in lessons they observed, but few were adept at describing or designing sheltered instruction that could promote academic language development. For many participants, the attention to linguistic demand was focused largely on content-specific vocabulary that is challenging for all learners. However, a small number of TCs were able to attend to the morphological and lexical aspects of their content areas that would be especially difficult for ELs. In classroom observations a few participants were able to plan instruction that sheltered content and promoted academic language. Findings also indicate that supplemental trainings and infusions into methods courses helped TCs to realize the linguistic challenges of their respective content areas. Most importantly, the findings suggest that TCs are better able to focus on the language of instruction when they witness instruction that is focused on language. Therefore, TCs learn best how to support ELs when they observe and teach in linguistically diverse classrooms with knowledgeable mentoring teachers and field supervisors. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2015. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Teacher Education, Special Education, Curriculum and Instruction.

abstract: Special education identification processes related to English language learners (ELs) in the United States have puzzled the field for decades. The phenomenon of referrals, the first step toward identification, is complex since it requires deciphering the root cause of students’ learning struggles—e.g., second language (L2) factors, the possibility of a learning disability (LD), or the combination of multiple other influences. To investigate the various influences contributing to learning difficulties, I centered this study on three potential sources, individual, institutional, and interpersonal. I aimed to answer, how did sociocultural influences mediate a teacher’s understanding of ELs’ competence? How did sociocultural influences mediate whether a teacher referred ELs to special education services? Using a cultural-historical theoretical approach, I sought deeper theoretical and empirical understandings into how institutional factors (e.g., tiered intervention contexts, policies), combined with other influences, mediated ELs’ referral decisions. I used a multiple parallel case study design following two fifth-grade ELs who faced the possibility of a referral. Interested in the interpersonal domain (e.g., interactions and communication among people), I zoomed in to a local process, student-teacher conferences to examine how classroom processes shaped teachers’ thoughts of students’ competence, and ultimately, referral decisions. I video-recorded teacher-student conference sessions over 14 weeks, and audio-recorded viewing sessions of the recorded conferences to understand teacher and student interpretations of learning competence. To understand how other dimensions (individual and institutional) contributed to teachers’ overall views about the student competence, I interviewed parents and school personnel, wrote observational field notes, and examined archival documents related to student learning over the entire fifth-grade year. I used inductive and iterative qualitative analytical approaches to craft the findings. My findings reaffirmed the complexity involved in finalizing ELs’ referral decisions. I found cultural factors intertwined with structural forces, driving students’ special education candidacies in divergent directions: one evaluated (LD); the other, retained. I also found the referral decisions were based on narrow understandings of learning and behaviors, lack of attention to students’ L2 needs, and faulty and overpowering structural forces which undermined teacher’s professional opinions about the referrals. These findings have implications for research, practice, and policy. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Special Education 2020

Due to the increasing diversity of mathematics classrooms today, teachers need guidance on how to support English Learners (ELs) in mathematics classes in a way that situates language learning within mathematical activity. Unfortunately, neither mathematics education research nor EL education research is sure how to navigate the complexity of teaching ELs mathematics while supporting both their language development and their mathematical development through their participation in mathematical activity. This study examined ELs' participation in mathematical Discourse, investigating both the mathematical purposes ELs accomplished by using multiple symbol systems, and the way ELs used non-English language (NEL) symbol systems to support their spoken English. The participants were college-aged ELs beginning their studies at the English Learning Center at an American university. The students all had fluency with basic conversational English, and had many different levels of mathematical experience. I identified five categories of purposes in which ELs engaged during mathematical Discourse. I also developed the Replace Augment Learn (RAL) framework that describes how ELs used NEL symbol systems to make up for their decreased English literacy and facilitate their participation in mathematical Discourse. Analysis of the data suggests ELs' use of NEL symbol systems (1) played a significant role in achieving many of the purposes associated with mathematical Discourse, and (2) opened up a space for effective language acquisition. These findings indicate that authentic mathematical activity can be a productive site for language development, and that ELs with basic conversational English and literacy with a variety of symbol systems can participate meaningfully in mathematical Discourse.

The EL (English learner) population is rapidly growing in the United States. ELs most often are finding themselves placed in classrooms without ESOL trained teachers. In the social studies curriculum, United States History often is regarded as one of the hardest courses for newly arrived immigrants due to the unfamiliarity of the content (Dunne & Martell, 2013). The absence of culturally relevant instruction also contributes to the potentially overwhelming nature of the social studies curriculum for ELs. The purpose of this study is to determine the extent teachers’ and tutors’ use of culturally relevant biographies during social studies instruction fosters engagement in social studies instruction among Latino English language learners. The research study was inspired by the work of Margaret Peters, retired Dayton, Ohio United States History teacher and author. In 1969 Peters wrote a book entitled, Striving to Overcome, Negro Achievers. The book featured twenty-one short biographies and pictures of African Americans who had impacted the history of the United States. Peters’ purpose for creating the book was to “free” young Americans from prejudice (Watras, 2012). In significance to this study, eight culturally relevant biographies were available to the participants. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the value of incorporating culturally and linguistically relevant biographies into ESOL social studies instruction. The study answered two questions: (1) How do ESOL teachers and tutors perceive culturally relevant biography integration during United States History instruction? and (2) How does the use of culturally relevant biographies impact teacher and tutor reported student engagement with EL Latino students? The following research methods were employed: participant interviews, field notes, observations, and participant reported student engagement questionnaires. The findings of this study showed benefit for student engagement among Latino ELs. The participant base largely echoed that studying historical individuals relatable to students was better than studying historical events. Participants all said they would use culturally relevant biographies in future instruction.

Diverse student populations are increasing in local, state, and national settings. There are achievement gaps in college readiness which must be closed between various student demographic groups. It is important for schools to know what methods work best for language acquisition to close the gaps and open postsecondary opportunities for all students. The purpose of this sequential, explanatory, mixed-method, formative program evaluation study was to examine the effects of a dual language (DL) program on improving the college readiness of students. Guided by the framework of learning and second language acquisition, college readiness levels between DL and non-DL students were examined and the perceived effects of DL as described by parents, students, and teachers were explored. The quantitative portion of the study used descriptive statistics to examine various transcript academic measures between 11 DL and 11 English immersion students. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 2 DL students, 6 English Immersion and DL staff, and a DL parent. The English Leaner students in the DL program passed more Advanced Placement courses and took more Advanced Placement exams than the English Learner students in the English Immersion program. District stakeholders interviewed for the qualitative portion of the study reported positive effects of the DL program including high levels of college preparation and increased parent involvement for the DL program. The study includes a white paper with recommendations for improvement and expansion of the DL program. Positive social change can be created in school districts by implementing effective language programs to prepare all students for the increasing demands of universities and the workplace.

abstract: This study explored the effects of a science, technology, engineering, math, and social studies (STEMSS) professional development (PD) on teachers of language learners’ (TLLs) knowledge, skills, and self-efficacy in teaching content and language in tandem in their classrooms. With the growing population of English learners (ELs) in today’s classrooms, it is essential TLLs have the skills to support language development while teaching content. This study investigated a face-to-face PD that developed skills in supporting ELs’ academic vocabulary development using strategies in content lessons. This research drew upon Shulman’s (2013) Knowledge Growth in Teaching Framework by looking at content, pedagogical, and curricular knowledge with the PD building knowledge and skills in addressing these areas of knowledge through the strategies. In addition, this research drew upon Lucas and Villegas’ (2013) Linguistically Responsive Teacher Education Model that addressed how teachers gain knowledge, skills, and self-efficacy to change pedagogical practices. Title I Kindergarten through high school TLLs voluntarily participated in the PD. A mixed methods approach was used. Quantitative data was collected using a pre, post, and maintenance survey and qualitative data was collected through a lesson analysis, fall and spring observations, snapshot surveys, and focus groups. Results suggested that the STEMSS PD increased knowledge, skills, and self-efficacy in teaching ELs content and language using strategies that support academic vocabulary. The qualitative data supported the survey results in the increase of knowledge and skills immediately following the PD and increased self-efficacy a year following the PD. The results also suggested that the strategies supported through PD, lesson development, and time to implement may better address the needs of TLLs in the classroom. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Leadership and Innovation 2020

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Given the increase of language minority students in school districts across Pennsylvania, school leaders are faced with the demand to address the unique needs of students learning English. Previous research suggests that state initiatives to simply assimilate students may not have been successful in meeting their needs. Furthermore, research and theory also suggest that leaders demonstrating cultural proficiency may be more effective in meeting the needs of English learners who are also ethnic minorities. The approach leaders take may be a function of the ethical paradigm that informs their decision-making. In order to understand the extent to which elementary school principals in one school district display cultural proficiency and to investigate the ethical paradigms that inform their decision-making, I conducted interviews with five principals in one large diverse school district in Pennsylvania. Drawing on a framework of Cultural Proficiency, I found in general there to be an over-appreciation of diversity and under-appreciation of cultural proficiency at the conclusion of this study. Additionally, there was an observed tendency for these school principals to view their leadership role as one that functions primarily within the confines of executing district policies at the building-level. Though each participant expressed the importance of advocacy for their students, they did not pursue policy creation or change within a broader political context. Despite the similarities among participants, my analysis suggested variations in the participants’ concepts of their role as school leaders to support English Language Learners and language minority students. / Educational Leadership

The purpose of this single case study was to understand the perceptions of Latino Spanish-speaking English learners on the efficacy of developmental education services at a western United States community college. The conceptual frameworks used in the investigation included critical theory related to human emancipation, social learning theory aligned to second language acquisition, and contemporary adult learning theories. The goal of the investigation was to understand how students used and perceived the developmental education services to transition from Spanish language instruction to English coursework. Research questions focused on how the developmental education services contributed to the successful completion of the child development practicum for Latino Spanish-speaking English learners. The primary data collection method was in-depth individual interviews of a purposeful sample of 9 successful students. Data were transcribed, coded, and themes were developed based on the components of the conceptual frameworks. Findings indicated that participants relied on Spanish instruction for comprehensible context, but needed consistent education support services and information from a culturally responsive institution in a language they understood. The results prompted the development of a multicultural introduction to college course designed to facilitate access to developmental education services. Implications for social change include developing curriculum to inform Spanish-speaking English learners in the community college system and remediating the shortage of qualified Latino preschool teachers in the community, thereby providing positive role models for young Latino children.