O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar se a estrutura da comunidade da meiofauna, das famílias e dos gêneros de Nematoda apresentam alterações devido à atividade antrópica na área próxima a Estação Antártica Brasileira (CF), em comparação com um controle (BP). A densidade média (ind.10cm-²) da meiofauna total variou entre 7028 (? 1529) e 16245 (? 12282) nos 20-30 m e entre 1569 (? 928) e 7088 (? 10338) nos 50-60 m, corroborando os valores altos já descritos para a zona rasa antártica. Nematoda foi dominante (>90%), seguido de Nauplii e Copepoda. 65 gêneros e 3 subfamílias de Nematoda foram encontrados, pertencentes a 24 famílias. Daptonema, Halailamus, Dichromadora, Sabatieria, Aponema e Sphaerolaimus foram dominantes nas duas profundidades, mas tiveram densidades mais altas nos 20-30 m relacionadas à maior biomassa de clorofila a. Não foram identificadas alterações na estrutura da comunidade da meiofauna, das famílias ou gêneros de Nematoda que pudessem ter sido causados por impacto antrópico. Porém, a riqueza e a diversidade das famílias e dos gêneros de Nematoda foram menores em CF, o que sugere um possível impacto, sendo importante a continuidade do monitoramento e a inclusão de outras áreas de referência. O nível taxonômico de família foi o mais apropriado para um estudo de monitoramento da zona costeira rasa antártica, visando o melhor custo-benefício. / The aim of this study was to verify if meiofauna, Nematoda family and genera community structure show modification caused by human activities at the Brazilian Antarctic Station (CF), in relation to a reference area (BP). Mean meiofauna densities ( ind.10 cm-²) ranged from 7028 (? 1529) to 16245 (? 12282) at 20-30 m and from 1569 (? 928) and 7088 (? 10338) at 50-60 m, being high as already described for the Antarctic coastal zone. Higher densities at 20-30m were correlated to more chlorophyll a and sand. Nematoda were dominant (>90%) followed by Nauplii and Copepoda. 65 genera and 3 subfamilies of Nematoda were found, belonging to 24 families. Daptonema, Halailamus, Dichromadora, Sabatieria, Aponema and Sphaerolaimus were dominant at both depths, but had higher densities at 20-30 m, which were correlated to higher chlorophyll a biomasses. Analysis for all levels of taxonomic resolution, separated the samples between depths, but not between areas, so differences caused by human impact were not detected. Number of genera ranged from 12 to 34 and diversity from 1.57 to 4.22 bits/ind, both being higher at 50-60m at BP, suggesting that an impact might have occurred, so monitoring should continue and be extended to other control areas. Identification of Nematoda to family level would be enough to evaluate environmental impact of the coastal antarctic zone.

O objetivo desta tese é identificar e descrever variações espacial, sazonal e multidecadal, com dados históricos, e padrões ecológicos locais na ictiofauna do estuário Cananéia-Iguape (ECI) em relação a fatores ecológicos naturais e/ou aqueles induzidos pelo aporte exógeno do rio Ribeira de Iguape (RI) através do canal artificial Valo Grande (VG). Demonstrou-se a relação de atributos hidrológicos, sazonalidade e espacialidade com a estruturação da diversidade da assembléia no infralitoral inconsolidado em escala local (i.e. dentro de um setor estuarino do ECI, a baía do Trapandé) utilizando delineamento amostral espacial e sazonalmente estratificado com amostragens mensais (julho/2009 junho/2010) com rede otter-trawl. Identificaram-se dois padrões locais na estrutura da assembleia: persistência sazonal de maior riqueza e abundância no interior (ambientalmente favorável) do que foz da baía (hidrodinamicamente instável) e variabilidade dessa estrutura espacial pelo efeito da interação entre profundidade, temperatura e ritmos sazonais populacionais. O ECI abrigou 246 espécies entre 1962 e 2010 e 214 entre 1993 e 2010. De acordo com extrapoladores matemáticos, há mais de 173 espécies no habitat demersal do eixo sul. Durante o período chuvoso, riqueza e abundância na ictiofauna do eixo sul aumentam com o incremento do recrutamento e agregações reprodutivas, estimuladas pelo pico de produtividade no ECI, e das migrações massivas à jusante, devido à forte redução das condições estuarinas no eixo norte. Propõe-se uma metacomunidade organizada por efeitos de massa entre a assembleia da baía do Trapandé e o pool regional de populações marinhas. A degradação das condições estuarinas pelo aporte do RI limitou a dispersão de espécies estuarino-residentes e marinho-migrantes no ECI. Isso determinou um gradiente espacial de perda generalizada de abundância, riqueza e diversidade funcional acompanhando consistentemente o gradiente espacial de impacto. O sinal desse efeito antrópico foi suficientemente elevado para ser detectado mesmo sob interferência de outras fontes de variabilidade espacial, temporal e ambiental. A redução da vazão do RI ao ECI para sua recuperação ecológica, estabelecida pelas autoridades governamentais, é uma medida que também restaurará a dispersão multiespecífica e, assim, a funcionalidade ecossistêmica da ictiofauna / The aim of the present thesis is to identify and describe spatial, seasonal, and multidecadal variations, by using historical data, and local ecological patterns in the fish fauna of the Cananéia-Iguape Estuary (ECI) in relation to ecological factors and/or factors derived from the exogenous discharge of the Ribeira de Iguape River (RI) flowing through the Valo Grande artificial channel. It was demonstrated the relation of hydrological attributes, seasonality, and spatiality with the beta diversity of the soft bottom infralitoral fish assemblage in local scale (i.e. within an ECI estuarine sector, the Trapandé Bay) with a seasonally and spatially stratified sampling design and monthly sampling (July/2009 June/2010) using otter-trawl net. Two patterns were identified: (I) fish species richness and abundance were higher and seasonally persistent in inner (environmentally favorable habitat) than in outer sector of bay; and (II) a variability of this fish faunas spatial structure induced by the effect of the interaction among depth, water temperature, and seasonal rhythms of fish populations. ECI hold 246 fish species between 1962 and 2010 and 214 species between 1993 and 2010. Mathematic extrapolators estimated > 173 species in the south axis of ECI. In rainy season, fish species richness and abundance in south axis increase with increasing (I) massive immigration of individuals from north axis of ECI due to the highest RI discharge and lowest salinity; (II) massive recruitments and reproductive aggregations and activities, which are coupled with the peak of primary and secondary productivity in ECI. It is proposed the existence of a metacommunity ruled by mass effect between assemblage of Trapandé bay and regional pool of marine populations. The degradation of ECIs estuarine conditions due to RI inflow limited multispecific dispersion among resident estuarine and marine species. This resulted in a spatial gradient of generalized loss in abundance, richness, and function in the fish fauna structure that strongly follow the spatial gradient of impact. The signal of this anthropogenic effect was enough high to be revealed even under interference from other sources of environmental, spatial, and temporal variability. The reduction of RI inflow to ECI in order to recover its ecological estuarine conditions is a governmental authorities correct decision to also recover the fish dispersion and, thus, the ecosystem functionality of fish fauna

O gerenciamento adequado de resíduos sólidos implica na proposição de tecnologias ambientalmente adequadas de reciclagem ou disposição final. Mundialmente, no caso de pneus inservíveis, a principal forma de destino final é a estocagem ou a queima para recuperação de energia. A estocagem pode gerar problemas ambientais como o risco de incêndios e a proliferação de animais ou insetos vetores de doenças. Embora venha crescendo o estudo de tecnologias para reciclagem e ou reutilização de pneus inservíveis, o total efetivamente reciclado é pequeno, mesmo em países que priorizam estas ações. O alto custo operacional e tecnológico inviabiliza uma maior abrangência na adoção de destas técnicas. Por outro lado, tecnologias de baixo desembolso de capital apresentam pequena demanda por pneus descartados. A tecnologia estudada reúne características de baixo custo operacional, em comparação às demais formas de reciclagem e a vantagem de propiciar controle indireto ao mosquito vetor da dengue, além de recuperar áreas degradadas por erosão e incrementar os reflorestamentos com espécies nativas. Ela consiste em enterrar pneus inservíveis em grandes erosões (voçorocas) ou com eles construir barreiras de assoreamento como parte da estratégia de recuperação da paisagem erodida que será posteriormente revegetada. Resultados dos testes de respirometria e liberação de zinco não demonstraram interferências negativas com a microbiota ou a liberação excesssiva de zinco na solução do solo ou no seu lixiviado. O potencial operacional de adoção da técnica foi demonstrado ser viável para todo o Estado de São Paulo, excluindo-se, eventualmente, a sua região metropolitana. / The appropriate solid waste management implies on the proposal of clean technologies for recycling as well as disposal of wastes widely generated by industrial processess. Regarding scraped tyres, stockpilling and energy recovery are the main practises adopted. Generation of urban pragues and pollution from uncontroled fire are large environmental problemas associated to the management of wasted tyre. Although tyre recycling technologies have been increasing the cost effectiveness associated to these technologies still being worthless, even in developed countries. On the other hand, low cost technologies demand a small amount of scraped tyre. The technology studied has a relative high demand for scraped tyre and also seems to be suitable for tyre disposal, dengue fever control as well as an improvement on degradated land restoration and reforesting. Results from biological test (soil respirometry) and zinc release from soil solution and leachates showed no interference with soil microbes, neither soil nor water contamination. Information generated from geoprocessing came across to a huge number of erosions in São Paulo State where the technique should be applied.

A AIA é um instrumento de política ambiental que surgiu há mais de 40 anos nos EUA e disseminou-se em diversos países, tendo se tornado alvo de muitas críticas. Recentemente, estas têm se consolidado em todo mundo, por meio de revisões sistemáticas dos quadros de AIA. No Brasil, algumas propostas vêm sendo discutidas e até implementadas em alguns contextos. Ao mesmo tempo em que esse processo apresenta-se como uma oportunidade de melhoria, na contramão, existe uma ameaça de racionalização (streamlining) da AIA, com o risco de levar a uma simplificação desse instrumento e consequente perda de qualidade. Assim, este estudo se propôs a identificar e analisar algumas das propostas de alteração do processo de Licenciamento Ambiental no Brasil (apresentadas pela CNI e ABEMA), considerando as experiências internacionais. Cada proposta foi analisada a partir de um sistema de pontuação desenvolvido com base em critérios extraídos da literatura internacional, de modo que puderam ser excluídas aquelas que caracterizaram-se como propostas de simplificação ou racionalização (streamlining) da AIA e mantidas as que apresentaram algum aspecto que pudesse contribuir para a melhoria do processo. Tais propostas, apresentaram medidas de aperfeiçoamento das regras existentes, o que se analisou como um caminho mais viável que a criação de novas regras ou o relaxamento das existentes. O discurso predominante é de que a AIA ainda é vista como um fardo que ameaça o progresso econômico, embora haja tentativas de alinhar as agendas de desenvolvimento e ambiente. Há um longo percurso de enfrentamentos a ser cumprido, tanto para manter as boas regras, quanto identificar propostas que consigam melhorar a prática existente. Mas, acima de tudo, para evitar a perda da qualidade ambiental e da contribuição para a política ambiental que a AIA traz / The EIA is an environmental policy instrument that has been established over 40 years in USA and it has since spread to different countries, currently receives a many of criticisms, which is natural after decades of implementation. Recently, they have been established worldwide, through systematic reviews of EIA frameworks, and in Brazil, some proposals have been discussed and even implemented in some contexts. Although, this process can be an opportunity for improvement of the EIA, you can also configure a threat rationalization (streamlining) of the EIA, with the risk of leading to a simplification that weakens the instrument. Thus, this study aimed to identify and analyze the proposed amendments to the Environmental Licensing process in Brazil (presented by the CNI and ABEMA), taking into account international experience. Each proposal was analyzed from a scoring system developed. After analysis they were excluded those characterized as proposals for simplification and rationalization (streamlining) of the EIA and kept those that demonstrated that they can contribute to process improvement. Such proposals showed measures of the existing rules, which was analyzed as a more coherent way than to create new rules or a relaxation of the existing. The EIA, is still seen as a \"burden that threatens economic development\" and although there are attempts to align the development and environment agendas, the first continues to dominate the discourse. We have a long way to confrontations to overcome, trying to maintain good rules, select the proposals they can improve existing practice, but, above all, to prevent the loss of environmental quality and contributing to environmental policy, than the EIA provides

A preocupação com a saúde tem levado ao uso de produtos com propriedades antimicrobianas, visando reduzir a proliferação de micro-organismos patogênicos. Ao mesmo tempo em que aditivos antimicrobianos são benéficos, pois reduzem a transmissão de doenças, os efeitos negativos, ainda, não estão bem elucidados. Estes aditivos podem afetar organismos essenciais ao meio ambiente e no desenvolvimento de plantas de interesse agrícola. Este trabalho tem o objetivo de avaliar o impacto ambiental causado por resíduos de elastômeros termoplásticos aditivados com três antimicrobianos comerciais à base de prata e pelos aditivos puros: (1) nanopartículas de prata adsorvida em sílica pirogênica (AgNp_sílica); (2) bentonita organomodificada com prata (Ag+_bentonita) e (3) prata em vidro fosfato (Ag+_fosfato). Os aditivos foram incorporados em uma formulação de composto termoplástico, a base de copolímero em bloco estireno-etileno/butileno-estireno (SESB), polipropileno (PP) e óleo mineral por mistura no estado fundido em extrusora dupla rosca e moldados por injeção. Os aditivos foram caracterizados por tamanho, forma e composição com o objetivo de avaliar a influência destas características nas seguintes propriedades do composto: mecânicas, térmicas, químicas, físicas, morfológicas e antimicrobianas. Além disso, foram avaliadas a variação na degradação abiótica e biótica dos compostos termoplásticos. A influência na degradação abiótica e a consequente redução de vida útil dos compostos foram avaliadas pelo ensaio de intemperismo. Já para a avaliação do impacto no solo foi realizado ensaio de biodegradação em câmara respirométrica (degradação biótica) e germinação de plantas no solo contendo os aditivos. O microcrustáceo aquático Daphnia magna (D. magna) foi utilizado como bioindicador de toxicidade dos aditivos na água. Os resultados indicam que compostos com AgNp_sílica possuem melhor propriedade antibacteriana que os demais aditivos testados, eliminando mais de 95% da população de Escherichia coli e 80% da população de Staphylococcus aureus após 24 horas de contato. A incorporação dos aditivos teve pouco efeito sobre as propriedades mecânicas, térmicas, químicas, físicas e morfológicas dos compostos. Os compostos aditivados e sem aditivo não apresentaram diferença no ensaio de intemperismo. No ensaio respirométrico, as amostras aditivadas tiveram pouca variação na produção de gás carbônico em comparação ao composto padrão. No teste de toxicidade em água com D. magna, houve mortalidade de todos os organismos, mesmo na concentração de 0,0001 mg L-1 de aditivo. No ensaio de germinação, os resultados foram adversos, não possibilitando estabelecer um padrão de toxicidade. Por fim, conclui-se que com o manejo adequado dos resíduos, compostos termoplásticos antimicrobianos são ambientalmente seguros, além de auxiliar no controle da propagação de doenças. / The concern with health has led to the use of products with antimicrobial properties aiming to reduce the proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms. At the same time that antimicrobial additives are useful to reduce the transmission of disease, adverse effects under human and environmental health still not well understood. These additives can affect organisms essential to the environment and plant development. The objective of this work was to evaluate the environmental impact caused by residues from thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) containing three commercial, silver-based antimicrobial additives and the pure additives. The additives tested were: (1) silver nanoparticles adsorbed on fumed silica (AgNp_silica); (2) bentonite organomodified with silver (Ag+_bentonite) and (3) silver phosphate glass (Ag+_phosphate). The additives were incorporated into a thermoplastic compound formulation, based on styrene-ethylene/butylene-styrene block copolymer (SESB), polypropylene (PP) and mineral oil by melt-blend in a twinscrew extruder and injection molded. A non loaded sample (standard) was used as control. The additives were characterized according to their size, shape and composition to evaluate the influence of these characteristics on the properties of the compound (mechanical, thermal, chemical, physical, morphological and antimicrobial). The influence on the abiotic degradation and consequent reduction in the life cycle of the compounds was evaluated by weathering test. To evaluate the impact of loaded TPE in soil, a soil biodegradation test was carried out in a respiratory chamber (biotic degradation) and germination of plants. The aquatic microcrustacean Daphnia magna (D. magna) was used as a bioindicator of toxicity of the additives in water. The results indicate that AgNp_silica compounds have better antibacterial properties than the other additives tested, eliminating more than 95% of the Escherichia coli population and 80% of the Staphylococcus aureus population after 24 h of contact. The incorporation of the additives had little effect on the mechanical, thermal, chemical, physical and morphological properties of the compounds. The results indicated that the additives presented a moderate effect on the properties of the above-mentioned metal loaded TPE compounds. The loaded and standard samples showed no difference in the weathering tests. In the respirometric assay, loaded samples had little variation in the production of carbon dioxide compared to the standard one. In the D. magna assay, there was mortality of all organisms, even at the concentration of 0.0001 mg L-1 of additive. In the germination test, the results were inconsistent and it was not possible to determine the toxicity potential of the additives tested. Lastly, it is possible to conclude that, taking into account the correct final disposition of TPE residues; thermoplastic compounds are environmentally safe and can assist in the control of diseases.

A aplicação do conceito de serviços ecossistêmicos à avaliação de impactos ambientais (AIA) pode resultar em uma análise integrada dos efeitos sociais e ambientais de projetos e contribuir para solução de algumas das deficiências recorrentes da prática de AIA. Com objetivo de testar a aplicabilidade de uma abordagem de serviços ecossistêmicos (ASE) foi selecionado um projeto de uma nova mina de ferro, em Minas Gerais. O estudo de impacto ambiental (EIA) desse projeto foi elaborado segundo uma perspectiva tradicional, focada nas perdas ou danos potenciais aos recursos ambientais e culturais e suas respectivas mitigações. O projeto está localizado em uma região prioritária para conservação da biodiversidade e a sua população afetada é principalmente composta por agricultores de subsistência sem acesso a saneamento básico e outros serviços públicos. A coleta de dados foi feita mediante análise documental (EIA e seus complementos) e avaliações expeditas de campo (observação direta e mini surveys). A análise dos resultados se deu por meio da comparação entre os resultados obtidos pelo teste e as etapas do processo de AIA. Os resultados apontam que a ASE: (1) proporciona uma análise integrada dos impactos sobre os meios físico, biótico e social; (2) pode melhorar a determinação do escopo do EIA e consequente identificação e avaliação dos impactos; (3) permitiu identificar impactos adversos significativos que não foram descritos no EIA; (4) facilita a identificação e avaliação de impactos cumulativos; que: (5) nem todos os impactos identificados normalmente pela AIA podem ser identificados pela ASE; e (6) a escala de análise e coleta de dados da ASE deve ser de detalhe, considerando especialmente os beneficiários dos serviços impactados. O teste também permitiu identificar as limitações da ASE, que se dão principalmente devido à sua inerente complexidade, à falta de consolidação do conceito e à dificuldade de analisar alguns serviços, principalmente os reguladores. Apesar da complexidade da ASE, a integração do conceito de serviços ecossistêmicos à prática atual de AIA poderá promover uma reestruturação de algumas de suas etapas. Tal reestruturação conduz a uma melhor análise de impactos, desde que esta seja realizada de maneira integrada e em escala compatível com a identificação detalhada dos serviços e seus beneficiários. / The integrated analysis of the social and biophysical impacts of a project, called herein ecosystem services approach (ESA) can overcome perceived shortcomings of the current environmental impact assessment (EIA) practice. Aiming at testing this approach, the EIA of a new iron ore mining project in Brazil was reviewed. The environmental impact study (EIS) filed in compliance with legislation was prepared under a \"traditional\" approach, focused on the potential loss or harm to environmental and cultural resources. The project is located in a region of high biodiversity conservation value. The affected population is mainly composed of subsistence farmers with poor access to social services. Data was collected through document analysis (EIS and its supplements) and rapid appraisal (direct observation and mini surveys). Findings were discussed in relation to the literature on the main steps of the EIA process. It was found that the ESA: (1) provides for biophysical effects to be described in integration with social impacts; (2) can improve scoping with consequent gains in impact identification and analysis; (3) can identify impacts not described in the EIS; (4) facilitates the identification of cumulative impacts; and (5) not all impacts identified in the EIS can be identified by the ESA; (6) the scale of data collection and analysis in the ESA should be detailed and focused in the beneficiaries of the affected ecosystem services. The test also led to the identification of limitations in the approach. They are mainly due to its inherent complexity, the lack of conceptual consolidation and the difficulties of analyzing some ecosystem services, especially regulating services. Despite these limitations, the inclusion of ecosystem services in EIA practice could lead to improvements in impacts analysis, provided that the approach is conducted in an integrated way and adopts detailed scales.

The use of pharmaceutical products has steadily increased in the United States from 2 billion prescriptions in 1999 to 3.9 billion in 2009. Half of patients do not comply with the recommended prescription regimen and dispose of unused drugs in the environment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and many researchers have highlighted the human-health risks associated with improperly disposing of pharmaceutical products. This quantitative cross-sectional study examined the potential correlations between people's actual disposal practices and their knowledge of the impact of disposal practices on the environment and human health, and availability of disposal options. The conceptual framework selected for this study comprised 2 models: the health belief model and the theory of planned behavior. Respondents to an online survey were 485 residents of the northeast United States, polled from the general population. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to model responses from the dependent variable actual disposal practice (ADP) across the independent variables, and analysis of variance explored whether ADP differed across demographic variables. Statistically significant associations emerged among individuals' knowledge of environment and human-health impact, recommended disposal practices, disposal options, and that person's likelihood to practice recommended disposal. Demographic variables did not impact disposal behavior. To promote positive social change, it is recommended that policymakers plan and implement the expansion of convenient drug disposal options, as well as information campaigns on proper disposal practices. In parallel, health care professionals should stress to their patients the importance of complying with prescribed regimens, thus minimizing the amount of unused or expired medications.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has become recognised as an improvement on the existing, limited system of project-based EIA. It aims to integrate environmental considerations into government policies, plans and programmes, and provides a basis for arriving at better-informed decisions at broader strategic levels. However, the compatibility of this new environmental planning tool with other planning systems such as transport, holds the key to successful integration of environmental concerns into existing planning approaches. This study investigates whether SEA can influence and integrate with transport planning and policy development processes through a survey of attitudes and opinions of planners on transport SEA in Taiwan. Transport planning has been criticised for considering too few alternatives, and for basing evaluations solely on technical and economic grounds. The emerging SEA seems theoretically feasible and potentially beneficial in allowing the integration of environmental concerns into strategic transport planning. Though many countries or regions have transport SEA provisions, practical transport SEA applications remain limited, mostly in Western developed countries with high environmental awareness. SEA applications are also limited in their strategies, focusing mainly on infrastructure-related projects. Moreover, most current transport SEA practices lack strategic focus and thus fail to fulfill SEA principles. This suggests that many planners are unfamiliar with the nature and techniques of SEA, and the conceptual impediments are still critical, which may result in significant barriers to transport SEA application. The EIA Act promulgated in 1994, together with its relevant provisions, have provided an applicable mechanism and a legal basis for SEA application in Taiwan, however, no transport SEA cases have been conducted. Many technical and non-technical barriers have been identified by the interviewees, indicating that most of the planners in Taiwan believe that transport SEA is conceptually and practically immature, and planners are not yet ready for it. The conceptual barriers seem more critical at this stage because practical barriers can only be identified and overcome when planners and decision-makers have a clear and proper concept of SEA. This narrowly-viewed application has limited the benefits of SEA, and has resulted in a rigid and incorrect idea that SEA was a passive impact-reducing mechanism; this may mislead the attitudes of planners to transport SEA. In fact, the emerging SEA is a re-engineered planning system framework that serves to remind planners that they are able to improve their efforts. It is a paradigm revolution, as the way in which planners think can make a vast difference. Thus, the potential for the emerging SEA concept to influence and integrate with transport planning and transport policy development processes depends not only on practical feasibility but also on a fundamental conceptual recognition of transport SEA. SEA could influence and integrate with transport planning and transport policy development processes if planners and decision-makers changed their ways of thinking. This study also found that a tiered and integrated transport SEA, embedded in the main transport planning process at different strategic levels, has great potential to embody the environmental and sustainable concerns in transport planning and decision-making. This finding is based on several contentions supported by the recent SEA studies showing that it should not be detached from the main planning process. SEA needs to be flexible in order to meet various policies, plans and programmes (PPP) demands, and it must be value-driven, not impact-oriented. A tiered, integrated transport SEA provides ways to overcome identified transport SEA application impediments. This two-in-one planning system is a simple solution which allows transport SEA to be conducted without involving complex legal processes. It improves institutional coordination and integrates not only with planning processes but also with values and resources.

Environmental costs of products are closely related to their environmental impacts incurred at all life cycle stages of a product. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) methods are often used to estimate these environmental costs and impacts. However, LCA analysis is known to be a costly and time-consuming method, whereas LCC analysis often neglects the social cost which is currently paid by society as a whole. Therefore, this research proposes a new methodology to assess the environmental impact and social cost for the entire life cycle of a product, which can be used as a simple and transparent tool for the early conceptual design stage. The methodology delivers the Environmental Impact Drivers and the associated Social Cost Drivers for all product life cycle stages via spreadsheets, and it provides the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method in the SimaPro software as a user interface. Furthermore, the drivers provide the values for four different geographical regions and damage categories. The conceptual model is based on the impact pathway approach which integrates the Simplified LCA (SLCA) model and the social cost databases. The SLCA model is derived from an extension of previous research whereas the social costs are based on the most suitable Economic Valuation (EV) studies such as the EPS2000d, EXMOD, Ecosense and Asian EV studies. The data collection for the SLCA database was accomplished by using the LCA analysis of the Eco Indicator 99 H/A method and the Hierarchical clustering technique. The data for the social cost database was collected using the Benefit Transfer Method which obtains the EV studies mainly from the Environmental Valuation Reference Inventory (EVRI) data source. Several case studies utilising existing products, including a product redesign case study were used to prove the concept and demonstrate the efficiency of this proposed methodology.

This thesis investigates the participation of Maori (New Zealand�s indigenous people) in the impact assessment process. Traditionally, Maori have had limited involvement in the management of New Zealand�s environment. One possible solution to this could be through the adoption of a collaborative management framework. Unfortunately, there is limited information and research on tools that could facilitate collaborative management between iwi and applicants for resource consent (including, developers, planning consultants and local authorities). Therefore, this research attempts to fill in a gap in current literature and to investigate the potential of the cultural impact assessment as a tool for collaborative management. Despite some criticisms of collaborative management, there are examples where this form of communicative planning has resulted in a very positive outcome for indigenous groups. Therefore, the specific aim of this research is to analyse the extent to which cultural impact assessments can be used as a tool to promote collaborative management between iwi and applicants. In achieving the research objectives of the thesis, the theoretical background of collaborative management and impact assessment theories are explored. In addition, democracy and participation theories are also investigated. In particular, in the discussion of these theories emphasis is placed on the potential involvement of indigenous peoples. The thesis argues that the application of collaborative management via the use of cultural impact assessments may potentially increase Maori involvement in planning. Analysis of collaborative management and impact assessment theories is supported by empirical research. This includes; 1) an exploration of the New Zealand setting for the two theories, 2) a content analysis of cultural impact assessments from eight different iwi authority in New Zealand, and 3) a case study analysis of two iwi organizations that have an established system for undertaking cultural impact assessments (Kai Tahu ki Otago and the Wellington Tenths Trust). The research finds that cultural impact assessments are very similar to other impact assessment reports. However, they should be viewed as evolving documents, as there are some areas of the assessment process that need to be improved upon. The research concludes by suggesting that cultural impact assessments do have the potential to be a tool for collaborative management between iwi and applicants. Further research and education in relation to the content, value and process of cultural impact assessments is required. It is also argued that increased resourcing, training and legislative requirements are needed to further increase Maori participation in planning.