The focus of this mini-dissertation is the use of riparian buffer zones to manage nitrate pollution of water resources. Riparian buffer zones are vegetated areas adjacent to streams, lakes and rivers, that are managed to enhance and protect aquatic resources from the adverse impacts of agricultural practices. These zones are recognised globally for their function in water quality amelioration. Despite the growing literature, there is little consensus on how to design, assess and manage these riparian buffer zones specifically for nitrate attenuation. For the purpose of this mini-dissertation, a literature review of world-wide research into the nitrate attenuation efficiencies of riparian buffer zones was undertaken. A database was created using the key information from this literature. Two key processes responsible for immobilising and/or removing nitrate from surface and subsurface flows are generally recognised in the available literature, namely: vegetative uptake and the process of denitrification. A comparison of the available riparian studies indicated that there are similar characteristics in riparian buffer zones that may be responsible for enhancing these key mechanisms. Studies where there was shallow lateral subsurface or uniform surface water delivery pathways, vegetation of close structure and composition, high organic matter in the soils and fluctuating soil surface saturation rates showed the most significant nitrate attenuation efficiencies. The mini-dissertation proposes that these similarities can be used to both assess a riparian landscape for its potential to attenuate nitrate, and to size a riparian buffer zone specifically to meet this function. A set of proposed guidelines based on the findings of the dissertation attempt to illustrate how riparian pollution control recommendations can be achieved. These guidelines are an example of how to assist a farmer or similar landowner in achieving good nitrate removal efficiencies from a riparian buffer zone. The guidelines work through three steps, which help to establish and prioritise management zones, assess each zone's potential for nitrate attenuation, and determine adequate riparian buffer widths for each management zone. A case study was used to illustrate the practical application of the guidelines. Full testing of these guidelines was not within the scope of this mini-dissertation, however the guidelines are an indication of how information regarding riparian function can be applied to a system to determine effective management of water resources. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002

Riparian systems perform many critical ecological functions and services. Riparian areas are in urgent need of rehabilitation to restore their natural functioning. In order to successfully implement rehabilitation efforts in riparian areas, a management plan for rehabilitation is required. An important facet of a management plan would be the assessment of riparian habitat quality. The aim of this study is to produce a riparian habitat assessment approach that would be helpful in developing a rehabilitation management plan. The approach needs to assess habitat from a landscape scale through to a site scale, be concise, user friendly, effective and be able to be used by all land managers. It must also allow for the identification of areas of high asset value that will be prioritised for rehabilitation efforts. Existing local and international habitat assessment methodologies reviewed did not satisfactorily meet all the above objectives. Accordingly, a new methodology for riparian habitat assessment was developed, consisting of a 3-leve1 approach which assesses habitat from a landscape scale (macroscale assessment), a reach scale (intermediate-scale assessment) and at a site scale (microscale assessment). The approach was tested in a case study of the Rivers Bend farm in the Nkwaleni Valley, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The developed methodology allows for an assessment technique of riparian areas that now explicitly includes landscape attributes, local characteristics of the river system (reach scale) and site scale level of assessment. Both the macroscale and the microscale assessments produced spatial representations of asset values within the study area. These areas were prioritised for rehabilitation efforts. Although these assessments produced results for identifying asset sites, the scoring· systems did not reflect the changes in habitat quality with enough detail. It is recommended that the characteristics determining the quality ratings and the scoring systems of these assessments be reassessed. The intermediate-scale assessment produced relevant stream profiles and gradient classes, but the application of the assessment did not successful1y delineate the river into homogenous segments. Further study is required to better integrate the 3-levels of the developed methodology. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

One key principle in Mozambican rural development policy is community participation. Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play an important role in the process. Taking the district of Mocuba, in Zamb6zia province (Mozambique) as an example, this dissertation analyzes the way NGOs implement community participation following national policies and promoting environmental awareness. The study evaluates the implementation of community participation as a critical contributing factor to environmentally oriented. and sustainable development projects by assessing and systematizing NGOs' interpretations and practices through specific development projects. Following its specific objectives, the study focuses on the importance of community participation and the role of NGOs. It characterises NGOs operating in Mocuba, tackling their co-ordination with other development stakeholders, and the extent to which community participation is put into practice. The study also presents and discusses stakeholders' knowledge on the relevant rural development legislation, focussing on NGOs' perceptions, interpretations, experiences, practices, weaknesses, limitations and problems related to community participation and the environment in local development. Although limited in scope to only one district and six NGOs, the present dissertation represents in microcosm the extent to which NGOs know and apply the principle of community participation and environmental issues in response to the country's relevant official policies, particularly considering those findings and discussions on: limited interNGO co-ordination and limited interaction with private enterprises and political parties, limited knowledge about rural development and its legal framework and community participation methodologies, the little weight given to environmental issues, and the token community participation. As a consequence and in line with its conceptual framework this research document appeals also for urgent and critical reassessments in the way development policies are prepared, issued, disseminated, implemented and monitored at relevant levels and by relevant stakeholders. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

This mini-dissertation is a comparison, by repeat survey, of farmer-related threats to cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) survival on specific commercial farms in central Namibia. The research was conducted, to investigate if there had been changes in these threats to cheetah survival over a ten-year period (June 1991 to October 2001). A sub-sample of 31 farmers who were originally interviewed by the Cheetah Conservation Fund in June 1991, were re-interviewed between July and October 2001. These farmers were exposed to the Cheetah Conservation Fund awareness-raising programme. The results of this survey were compared to the results of the original survey of these farmers. This study showed that changes in farmer-related threats to cheetah survival have taken place. These include changes in land use, the attitude and behaviour of farmers towards cheetah, and cattle management practices. The land use changes include an increase in game farming, as a major source of income, by 19% of the farmers, since 1991. This increase in game farming was associated with an increase in game proof fencing and the introduction of alien antelope species into game fenced areas. The attitude of farmers towards the presence of cheetah on their farms was found to have changed significantly (p = 0.024), with 13% more farmers than before 1991 favouring cheetah presence on their farms. The behaviour of farmers towards cheetah has also changed in favour of cheetah survival. During the ten-year period from 1991 to 2001, 23% of the farmers removed no cheetah, compared to 10% for the ten-year period before 1991. Thirteen percent of the farmers were found to remove cheetah by trophy hunting only, as opposed to none prior to 1991. During the ten-year period from 1991 to 2001, the number of cheetah removed by the same farmers had declined by 243 (55%) cheetah when compared to the previous ten-year period. Game farmers were found to remove on average 3.75 times more cheetah than livestock farmers. Five game farmers were responsible for removing 92 cheetah, representing 47% of the total number of cheetahs removed. The majority (88%) of cattle farmers experienced calf losses to cheetah predation. In contrast to this, only 44% of smallstock farmers experienced losses to cheetah predation. The mean loss of livestock to predation by cheetah was found to be low, less than one animal per year for both calves and smallstock. The majority (73%) of cattle farmers implement only one livestock management strategy to prevent predation on calves by cheetah. The majority (88%) of smallstock farmers implemented more than one strategy to prevent predation. Changes in management practices to protect calves from cheetah predation since 1991 included a 14% decline in farmers using a technique known as 'calving camps' and an increase of 42% in the number of farmers monitoring their cows during the calving season. In conclusion, during the ten-year period from 1991 to 2001, both positive and negative changes in farmer-related threats to cheetah survival were recorded amongst the farmers interviewed. The positive changes include changes in the attitude and behaviour of farmers in favour of cheetah survival. However, this progress was tempered by change in land use from livestock to game farming, since game farmers pose a greater threat to cheetah survival than livestock farmers. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

The aim of this research was to investigate the possibility of using soil magnetic susceptibility to differentiate wetland soil from non0wetland soil, thereby enabling the identification of a wetland boundary. The initial methodology to test the viability of using magnetic susceptibility for wetland delineation was carried out at nine sites in three areas of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Changes in vegetation were used to identify the permanently, seasonally and temporarily wet zones at each site to provide a quick indication of the various boundaries. At least one transect was studied at every site, extending from the outer edge of the temporary zone to the water's edge. Magnetic susceptibility readings, soil samples and/or elevations were taken in each zone. It was found that the magnetic susceptibility readings could be used to differentiate between the various wetland zones but boundaries were not identified due to the reconnaissance nature of the work, a specific protocol had yet to be discovered. This methodology was a reconnaissance phase to assess the potential of using soil magnetic susceptibility. A second methodology was designed specifically to identify a wetland boundary. The wetland zones were identified using vegetation indicators from the South African field procedure for delineating wetlands. Magnetic susceptibility readings were done on transects perpendicular to the suspected boundary and a critical value was identified. A magnetic susceptibility boundary was marked according to the critical value and verified by taking readings along transects parallel to it on both sides. The boundary was then identified using South African field procedure according to soil indicates. The soil data showed a similar boundary to the magnetic susceptibility boundary but indicated a 'boundary zone' of approximately l2m in width rather than a specific line. A final methodology was planned to improve the resolution of the magnetic susceptibility boundary. A grid was laid out over a strip through the wetland including the boundary area on both sides. This was to provide accurately spaced points at which to take magnetic susceptibility readings and elevations. The critical value, a value that separates wetland from non-wetland soil, was identified and verified using soil indicators. The field procedure was more difficult to carry out than using the magnetic susceptibility sensor, yet both methods identified the same boundary with a resolution of about 3m. This initial study demonstrates the potential for using magnetic susceptibility for wetland delineation. Although the results at the final site proved the method to be successful, it was not suitable for use at all sites and the results were often difficult to interpret. Limitations include factors such as plinthic horizons close to the soil surface and shallow, rocky soils. Thus further research is required before magnetic susceptibility can be used to delineate wetlands in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

Air pollution has increased over time due to human population growth, industrialisation and other economic activities which have led to global and localised deterioration in air quality. The uMhlathuze Municipality, located on the KwaZulu-Natal North Coast is one such local area that has a rapidly developing Industrial Development Zone, currently comprising many large and small scale industries. These large-scale operations are amongst South Africa’s largest process industries and operate continuous combustion processes which release significant quantities of air pollutants into the atmosphere. These pollutants include reduced sulphur gases, mercaptans, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide (SO2), sulphur trioxide, carbon dioxide, particulate fluoride and ammonia. In light of the promulgation of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (AQA) of 2004 and the need to assess ambient air quality, the contribution of air dispersion modelling to ambient air quality management in the uMhlathuze Municipality was assessed using SO2 as an indicator pollutant. The Gaussian puff urban air dispersion model called Calpuff was used to model five scenarios including a control run with actual emissions data; a worst-case run using permitted emissions data; and three emissions reduction scenarios using 25%, 50% and 75% reductions of the permitted data.. The results of these modelling scenarios were compared with results of other modelling studies recently conducted in the uMhlathuze Municipality, as well as with the South African Ambient Air Quality Standards (SAAAQS) for SO2. The results revealed that the permitted emissions scenario led to exceedances of the SAAAQS 1-hour and 24-hour average concentrations over most of the uMhlathuze Municipal area. The use of the permitted emissions values produced higher SO2 concentrations over the study area than the control run that comprised current emissions values. The control scenario produced similar results to the scenario in which there was a 50% reduction in permitted emissions data and suggests that the industries are operating at half of their permitted levels of SO2 emissions. The reduction of the permitted emission by 75% shows a significant decrease in the area exceeding the SAAAQS 1-hour standard, and compliance with the SAAAQS 24-hour and annual average standards. The results of this study for the control scenario based on actual emissions were higher than previous studies conducted in uMhlathuze due to a larger quantity of SO2 emissions used in the modelling exercises, different meteorological data sets and different air dispersion models used. However, there is a close correspondence between the Airshed (2006) results and this study when similar quantities of SO2 emissions were modelled in the permitted emissions scenario. In view of the exceedances experienced in the control run and permitted emissions scenarios, it is likely that under the AQA, some reduction in emissions will be required. In line with the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism National Framework classification system, the City of uMhlathuze is likely to fall under a Class 4 area, in which ambient concentrations of SO2 can pose a threat to the health and well-being of people. Immediate air quality management action plans that have specific timeframes for compliance with the ambient standards are required. The National Framework notes that the air quality impact of an industry will be assessed before an Atmospheric Emission License is granted and implies that each industry is required to undertake an air quality specialist study to determine its individual impact on ambient air quality. The air quality specialist study should include air dispersion modelling to assess the ambient SO2 concentrations; a health risk assessment based on the results of the dispersion modelling; and mitigation measures that are required to ensure compliance with ambient standards through the use of the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO). / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2007.

Landfill gas (LFG) contributes significantly to air pollution. Methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the major constituents of LFG, and are significant greenhouse gases that play a vital role in causing global warming. Certain air pollutants from landfill sites are carcinogenic (e.g. benzene), while others are odorous (e.g. methyl mercaptan). Due to these potential negative impacts, there is need to forecast the yield and production rate of biogas generated. Limited work has been done on the modelling of LFG emissions for landfill sites in Durban. This study focuses on the estimation of air pollutant emissions from three landfill sites, namely Bisasar Road, Shongweni and Buffelsdraai using the LANDGEM model and comparing the results against the findings of Hofstetter Gas Yield Model which has been utilized before by Durban Solid Waste (DSW) for Bisasar Road landfill. The greenhouse gases of global concern, namely CH4, CO2 and halocarbons were investigated in this study. The LANDGEM model predicted CO2 emissions to be higher than CH4 and other greenhouse gases. The warm, moist climatic conditions suitable for CH4 oxidation may be responsible for the increased generation rates of CO2. The main components of LFG which cause landfill odour problems are sulphur-containing compounds. Methyl mercaptan is the component causing persistent bad odours in the landfills, contrary to popular belief that hydrogen sulphide is the major contributor to odour pollution. Hydrogen sulphide has been predicted by LANDGEM to be the sulphur-containing gas that is produced in greatest quantities. Benzene and vinyl chloride are the most hazardous compounds emitted from landfills, since they are carcinogenic. The emission rates of benzene were found to be higher than those of vinyl chloride in the active landfill sites of Bisasar Road and Shongweni. The LANDGEM model estimated total LFG emissions of 8.371 x 107 m3y-1 at Bisasar Road landfill, compared with a lower emission rate of 3.285 x 107 m3y-1 predicted by the Hofstetter model. The LANDGEM model revealed LFG to peak during the closure of the landfill, and to decline thereafter for a long period of time. The Hofstetter model showed that LFG could reach its maximum within three years of waste deposition. LANDGEM model is a widely used methodology for estimating LFG emissions. It is used in United States as regulatory model to quantify the potential LFG emissions produced from the landfill. This model can be used by landfill owners and operators to evaluate the performance of the landfill and to determine whether the landfill is still subject to regulatory requirements, especially in the countries where emission guidelines have been established. Therefore, in the developing country like South Africa, it is essential to quantify and evaluate the LFG emissions released from landfills despite the fact that no legal LFG emission guidelines are put in place yet. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

All matter has a specific magnetic signal , due to their magnetic properties. These range from a high susceptibility to become magnetised (ferrimagnetic) to a low ability to be magnetised (diamagnetic). Magnetic susceptibility measures the degree to which a substance can be magnetised, and this can be used to identi fy minerals within material and used as an indicator for processes Le., erosion. Therefore magnetic susceptibility has been widely used to investigate soil related research as the values obtained correspond with the types of magnetic mineral s in the soil, mainly the iron oxides such as magnetite and maghaemite (higher MS), and haematite and goethite (lower MS). Thus MS acts as a signature for different types of soils allowing them to be categorised. The amount of magnetic minerals present in the soil is largely dependent on soil processes active in the profile and external factors, such as parent material. Soil processes influence the type or amount of magnetic mineral in the soil, or the strength of the magnetic signal. Lower MS values are associated with horizons that have undergone gleying, eluviation, leaching and reductive weathering. Higher MS values are found in horizons that have undergone illuviation, and hydrolytic and oxidative weathering. Diamagnetic materials, such as calcium carbonate, decrease the magnetic susceptibility by diluting the magnetic signal. The relationship between MS and iron in soil is influenced by both external factors such as parent material ; climate; topography; land use history of the area and time. Similarly these factors significantly contribute to soil genesis and are highly interactive. Parent materials that are igneous are found to form soil with higher magnetic susceptibility, and sedimentary and metamorphic rocks form less magnetic soils. However, it has also been found that materials such as slate are related to soil with high susceptibility, which is argued to result from more rapid weathering and the release of iron in the ionic form. Climate has a direct affect on the soil processes that drive magnetic susceptibility, thus in warm tropical climates magnetic susceptibility is expected to have higher values . Topography has been shown to alter magnetic susceptibility values , and generall y the top and foot of the slope have higher values than the slopes. Land-use history influences magnetic susceptibility as cultivation is likely to disturb the soil causing magnetic susceptibility values to be lower due to mixing of the upper and lower soil layers. Time relates to the age of the soil and older soil either has large magnetic susceptibility values due to more prolonged pedogenesis, or the magnetic particles have weathered out of the profile and magnetic susceptibility is lowered. Past research has found topsoil to have higher frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility than lower soil horizons. Frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility measures fine-grained ferrimagnetic particles with grain sizes between 0.013 and O.027f.lm. Two measurements at low and high frequency (0.46 and 46 kHz respectively) are used to calculate frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility. These are measured using a Bartington MS2B sensor and certain measures need to be taken in order to obtain an accurate measurements of magnetic susceptibility. Frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility values are influenced by factors including burning, organic matter and pedogenesis. However, the nature of contribution of these is still highly debated. Many South African soils are considered to be old soils and the amount of magnetic minerals in these is unknown. It has been found that magnetic minerals such as maghaemite have been depleted due to erosion cycles. Very little research has been undertaken regarding the applicability of magnetic susceptibility for South African soils as most of the research on magnetic susceptibility in soils has been carried out in countries of the northern hemisphere, where soil materials are much younger than in South Africa. The ability of frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility to differentiate between topsoil and subsoil allows it to be used as a method of assessing topsoil erosion. Topsoil erosion has a detrimental effect on the environment and it is vital a rapid field indicator is developed to assess erosion in order to curb the process. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

Since the reintroduction of South Africa into the international community, tourism has been emphasised, through policy and public speech, as a means to achieve socio-economic upliftment and job creation. Although tourism has potential to contribute to a country's wellbeing, its implementation may introduce many complexities and potentially undesirable consequences. One way of alleviating some of the negative consequences of tourism, is through sufficiently involving communities in the tourism development and execution process. Most often the emphasis on involving local communities in tourism development has been rural based. The move to include previously disadvantaged urban communities, has been less well articulated. Local government authorities have only recently been given responsibility for both community involved tourism development and local economic development, and are therefore still formulating their approach to address these issues. Within KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) there are relatively few government projects currently concentrating on community-based tourism in urban and peri-urban areas. This project looks at one of these initiatives to build a case for sustainable community-based urban tourism. The Freedom Experience is a predominantly urban-based heritage tourism initiative proposed by the Pietermaritzburg-Msunduzi Transitional Local Council for development within Pietermaritzburg and surrounding areas. Georgetown is a previously neglected area falling within this region and is used as a case study to explore the process of participation in urban tourism development. The key stakeholders involved in tourism development within KZN are ascertained and interviewed. Difficulties and opportunities are identified for community-based urban tourism development in general, and for the case study area in particular. Due to idiosyncratic characteristics of individual situations and communities, any specified procedure for community participation, and any organization involved with its implementation, needs to be flexible. A process is, suggested, which attempts to avoid the dualistic nature of either top-down or bottom-up approaches to tourism development. It introduces a less rigid approach, which breaks from the view that decision-making needs to be conceptualised within a hierarchical context. Communication and decision-making responsibility and accountability are shared between various levels. An approach is presented, which supports small scale community and tourism development projects linking into an overarching development framework. This approach should result in sustainable development, bringing community benefits which can be immediately effective. It advocates the establishment of self-supporting enterprises which function successfully, independent of tourist demand. In this way contributing to the fulfilment of socio-economic, job creation and related capacity building objectives, without relying on an influx of tourists from a historically disloyal and unpredictable consumer base. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.