Access to modern energy is central to addressing important global development challenges including poverty, inequality, climate change, food security, health and education. The understanding of the concept of energy poverty is critical when making any attempts to alleviate it. Lack of access to sustainable energy is also a major factor preventing social and economic development, both of which are linked to sustainable poverty reduction. However, worldwide access to energy has shown very slow progress because of the costs associated with electric grid extensions and decentralized systems by which power is offered. This study investigates the viability of implementing solar energy in poor communities in Inanda, which is located in Durban, South Africa. Inanda is known to be an area with high unemployment and high poverty levels. Most important to this study are high energy poverty levels in the area. It was found that these communities prioritised energy for cooking, lighting and heating. The results of this study also indicate that in most households, multiple sources of unsustainable energy sources were being used. These included electricity, fuelwood, gas, paraffin and candles. Illegal electrical connections are a growing problem in this community, and other traditional sources were found to have numerous effects on human and environmental health. Upon investigation of the potential for renewable energy implementation in these communities, it found that there was a high willingness to use it, specifically solar energy; however, more education is needed regarding solar energy and related benefits. It was also indicated that the provision of sustainable energy will allow more time for income-generating activities in the community. The biggest challenge with regard to provision of solar energy was cost. These communities cannot afford to pay high start-up and maintenance costs for the technology. It is for this reason that efforts should be made to subsidize these costs and integrate this plan into policy-making. This will not only provide poor communities with sustainable energy, but also help advance the renewable energy industry in South Africa. / M.A. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 2013.

Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) woodlands are a source of valuable resources that contribute substantially to rural economies and nutrition across Southern Africa. However, a number of factors such as over-harvesting and climate change have brought the sustainability of the mopane woodland resources into question. Insect defoliation remains a major factor contributing to the depletion of woodland resources in rural areas resulting in low vitality and productivity of the woodland. Conventional methods (e.g. visual evaluation) have been used in monitoring insect defoliated areas in the past. These methods are costly and timeconsuming, because of the need to collect data immediately before and after an extreme event. In this regard, remote sensing techniques offer a practical and economical means of quantifying woodland degradation over large areas. Remote sensing is capable of providing rapid, relatively inexpensive, and near-real-time data that could be used for monitoring insect defoliation especially in semi-arid areas where data collection may be difficult. The present study advocates the development of techniques based on remotely sensed data to detect and map defoliation levels in Mopane woodland. The first part of the study provides an overview of remote sensing of insect defoliation, the implications for detecting and mapping defoliation levels as well as the challenges and need for further research especially within Mopane woodland. Secondly, the study explored whether Mopane species can be discriminated from each of its co-existing species using remote sensing. This was done as a prerequisite for classifying defoliation on mopane trees. Results showed that, with limited training samples, especially in semi-arid areas, Mopane trees can be reliably discriminated from its co-existing species using machine learning algorithms and multispectral sensors with strategic bands located in sensors such as RapidEye. These positive results prompted the need to test the use of ground based hyperspectral data and machine learning algorithm in identifying key spectral bands to discriminate different levels of insect defoliation. Results showed that the random forest algorithm (RF) simplified the process and provided the best overall accuracies by identifying eight spectral wavelengths, seven of which belongs to the red-edge region of electromagnetic spectrum. Furthermore, we tested the importance of the red-edge region of a relatively cheaper RapidEye imagery in discriminating the different levels of insect defoliation. Results showed that the red-edge region played an important role in mapping defoliation levels within Mopane woodland with NDVI-RE performing better than the traditional NDVI. Thirdly, the study tested the reliability and strength of the internal validation technique of RF in classifying different defoliation levels. It was observed that the bootstrapping internal estimate of accuracy in RF was able to provide relatively lower error rates (0.2319) for classifying a small dataset as compared to other validation techniques used in this study. Moreover, it was observed that the errors produced by the internal validation methods of RF algorithm was relatively stable based on the confidence intervals obtained compared to other validation techniques. Finally, in order to evaluate the effects of insect defoliation on the biophysical properties of mopane canopies at different defoliation levels, the study estimated leaf area index (LAI) of different defoliation levels based on simulated data. This was done using PROSAILH radiative transfer model inverted with canopy spectral reflectance extracted from RapidEyeRapidEye imagery by means of a look-up-table (LUT). It was observed that the significant differences exist between the defoliation levels signifying reduction in the LAI as a result of the defoliation. Furthermore, results showed that the estimated LAI was in the range of those reported in literature. The NDVI-RE index was the most strongly correlated with the estimated LAI as compared to other variables (RapidEye bands and NDVI). Overall, the study demonstrated the potential of remote sensing techniques in discriminating the state of Mopane woodland after insect defoliation. The results are important for establishing an integrated strategy for managing defoliation processes within Mopane veldt, thereby satisfying both the needs of local populations for Mopane trees and the worms. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

As biofuels were growing in importance, Jatropha curcas has been widely promoted as the best suitable source for biodiesel that can be exploited by developing countries .Whilst there were fears that this development may threaten food security and put a strain on other natural resources there was a view that if well managed, the activity may spur rural economic growth thereby reducing poverty and unemployment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact that growing Jatropha curcas for supplying the biodiesel industry has made on the livelihoods of the households that were involved within the community of Mpaka in Swaziland. The target respondents were all the farmers that had an agreement with D1 Oils Swaziland and actually planted Jatropha curcas based on the Sustainable Livelihoods framework and using qualitative techniques data were collected using documentation, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussion, and some observation. Content analysis was then carried out to document the history of growing Jatropha curcas in Swaziland; map out the vulnerability context for the community of Mpaka; identify the range of assets that create the different livelihood strategies for the different households; determine the effect of policies and institutional conditions; and describe what the stakeholder’s view of growing Jatropha curcas is. The findings of the study revealed that growing Jatropha curcas greatly reduced the households’ vulnerability to drought, crops being browsed by livestock and high cost of farming inputs. However the study also revealed that the activity did not yield the desired outcome of income generation as the project did not continue due to bad publicity coupled with a poor policy environment and lack of coordination between and within government ministries and departments. Whilst it can be concluded that that the activity had a negative impact on the households involved it showed a great potential provided government through the relevant ministries and departments creates an enabling environment of proper policies and institutions and by involving all stakeholders at the right time. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Conservancies are viewed as playing an important role in enabling the landscape-scale management of biodiversity and ecosystem services by extending conservation areas beyond the boundaries of formally protected areas (PAs). In the South African context of the Biodiversity Stewardship Programme (BSP), conservancies are viewed as a viable landscape-scale approach to stewardship that can contribute to meeting government conservation mandates of conserving biodiversity and expanding its protected area network outside state PAs, through partnerships with private landowners. Using the landscape approach theory, I determined that the landscapescale context of biodiversity and ecosystem services creates common pool resources (CPRs) that require collective action in the form of integrated management planning across private property boundaries. In this context, conservancies create multi-tenure conservation areas with landscape meanings and associated benefits that require landscape-scale collective action. However, using property and collective action theories, I deduced that when landowners in a conservancy seek to engage collective action for landscape-scale conservation objectives under the BSP, they are challenged by the tension between individual meanings defined at the scale of their own property and landscape-scale meanings that straddle property boundaries. This tension is reinforced by property rights in which each actor holds resources under a private property rights regime while the landscape-scale meanings of CPRs need to be addressed in a common property rights regime context. Based on this complexity, my research set out to determine peoples’ meanings attached to the concept of conservancy and to illustrate how these meanings influence the ability to attain collective action necessitated by the CPR management regimes superimposed on private property rights regimes. This was with the view to refine the concept of conservancy to enable those who establish and engage with conservancies to better appreciate the implications and the nature of the governance regime that is required for success. My results show that the success of a conservancy as a landscape approach is dependent on landowner commitment to collective action. Landowner commitment is also influenced by a shared understanding of the conservancy as a multi-tenure conservation area managed collectively for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services across private properties. Thus Conservancy members need to develop an understanding of the conservancy as an area of contiguous multiple private properties that require collective management through integrated management planning, guided by a Dargle Conservancy management plan. Conservancy members also need to develop an understanding of the contiguous properties as encompassing biodiversity and ecosystem services that require common property rights regimes for their sustainable use and management. This explicit landscape approach will encourage landowner commitment to the conservation objectives set out in the multi-tenure conservation areas. I use my research findings to identify three issues for further research in community-based conservation areas as a landscape approach to conservation: firstly, research that focuses on developing integrated management plans for landscape-scale bio- and eco-regions by designating contiguous private properties into different categories of PAs according to collectively agreed conservation objectives; secondly, research that focuses on developing appropriate management regimes based on a model of multi-tenure conservation areas managed collectively for the conservation of biodiversity across private properties; and thirdly, research that focuses on establishing social structures for the development of adequate capacity and decision-making at the conservancy level to implement a landscape approach that supports ecological functions beyond individual boundaries. Building on this research will provide an important continuous learning process between conservancies and conservation agencies. Such learning is necessitated by the complexity of continually changing social and ecological systems that influence perceptions and behaviours. / Thesis (Ph.D)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

<p>The rapidly increasing use of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in consumer products and medical applications has raised ecological and human health concerns. Significant progress has been made in understanding the toxicity of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. The goals of this dissertation were to investigate the mechanism of Ag NP toxicity under both laboratory conditions and environmental backgrounds, using <italic>Caenorhabditis elegans</italic> (<italic>C. elegans</italic>) as a model system. A key question for addressing these concerns is whether Ag NP toxicity is mechanistically unique to nanoparticulate silver or if it is a result of the release of silver ions. Ag NPs are produced in a large variety of monomer sizes and coatings, and since their physicochemical behavior depends on the media composition, it is important to understand how these variables modulate toxicity.</p><p> In order to test the hypothesis of a particle-specific effect, multiple techniques were used, including analytical chemistry, pharmacological rescue, and genetic analysis. Results suggested that dissolution was important for all tested Ag NPs and oxidative stress (a particle-specific effect) was important only for some Ag NPs, especially the citrate-coated Ag NPs (CIT-Ag NPs). The hypothesis of the particle-specific effect was further tested by investigating the cellular uptake and damage co-localization upon exposures to CIT-Ag NPs. I found that Ag NPs crossed all layers, including the pharynx, gut, and also embryos through trans-generational transfer. Sites of damage were examined through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and CIT-Ag NPs showed a more severe and deeper level of damage compared to ionic Ag. In addition, pharmacological inhibitors in parallel with genetic mutants (deficient in both endocytosis and lysosomal function) were used to explore the impact of those pathways on Ag NP uptake and associated toxicity. I found that endocytosis was important for CIT-Ag NP uptake and toxicity. Most intriguingly, one of the lysosomal deficient mutants was much more sensitive than wild type to reproductive inhibition after exposure to CIT-Ag NPs but not ionic Ag, constituting a clear nanoparticle-specific toxic effect.</p><p> These laboratory mechanistic studies, however, cannot be directly extrapolated to complicated environmental conditions, including variable amounts of natural organic matter (NOM), different temperatures and salinities, surface sulfidation, etc. My general hypothesis was that complex environmental medium would reduce Ag NP toxicity. In support of this, the environmental conditions present in mesocosms resulted in a loss of toxicity one week after dosing/spiking. In laboratory studies, I found that that increasing temperature and salinity tended to increase Ag NP toxicity, while sulfidation reduced Ag NP toxicity, acting as a &ldquonatural antidote&rdquo. I studied two types of NOM, Suwannee River and Pony Lake fulvic acids (SRFA and PLFA respectively). PLFA rescued toxicity more effectively than SRFA. Therefore, CIT-Ag NP-NOM interactions were explored in depth using PLFA. Using hyperspectral dark field microscopy, I was able to detect the formation of Ag NP-PLFA complexes and the limited tissue uptake of Ag NPs (with and without PLFA). Consistent with the reduced acute toxicity of Ag NPs by PLFA, I also found a rescue effect of PLFA on Ag NP-induced ultrastructural damage.</p><p> In conclusion, Ag NP toxicity resulted largely from dissolution and in some cases also from a particle-specific effect. However, Ag NP toxicity was strongly altered by environmental matrices. Continued in depth elucidation of Ag NP behavior, cellular uptake pathways and trafficking, and their interactions with other environmental factors will be invaluable in predicting, designing, and remediating the potential/existing environmental implications of silver-related nanotechnology.</p> / Dissertation

Humanistic geography specifies that development of the area should encompass the whole environment, the economical, physical, social and cultural environment. For economical reasons, development should be sustainable. For development to be sustainable thus communities should be developed so as to utilize the natural resources in a way that does not compromise the future. Youth in SA are faced with many challenges which in turn compromise sustainable development. It is thus urgent that the youth be developed so as to be economically active thus lifting the strain off the environment. The purpose of the study is to investigate the needs of the youth of Folweni Township, KZN in order for the attainment of sustainable environmental! community development. The study assumes that for sustainability, the youth should realize the challenges facing them and act on them. It realizes the benefits of youth development within their area, Folweni; in the country and at the international level. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Durban-Westville, 2002.

Soil fungi play an important role in regulating plant communities as well as above and below ground ecosystem-level processes; conversely, plant communities may also affect the structure and functionality of these root-associating fungi. Alteration of these fungal communities due to non-native plant invasion has the potential to disrupt biogeochemical cycling, soil structure, and plant growth. Both beneficial symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) as well as the total fungal community are potentially altered by aggressive invasive plant species in such a way as to disrupt existing native endophytic fungal communities in the soil post invasion. This disruption could provide a pathway for invasion and suggests the importance of investigating plant-fungal associations in invaded ranges. I used molecular techniques to characterize the fungal communities colonizing Vincetoxicum rossicum or Dog-strangling vine (DSV) and Alliaria petiolata or garlic mustard, both European natives that are currently well established in Eastern North America, as well as native plants that are commonly found persisting in the presence of dense colonies of DSV, as well as those same natives growing separately from DSV. Fungi colonizing different plant groups were analyzed using primers that target the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal operon in order to amplify total fungal species (TF), as well as primers designed to exclusively amplify AMF using small subunit rRNA sequences. Significant differences were observed in the diversity of both the TF and the AMF communities colonizing native plants in the invaded sites relative to the uninvaded sites. Sequencing work indicated that DSV forms associations with a broad array of fungal partners relative to proximal native plants, suggesting the likelihood of it being a fungal generalist. As well, DSV was found to associate with described opportunistic AMF such as Glomus intraradices, G. caledonium, G. fasciculatum and G. mosseae, while natives growing within DSV patches were not. Finally, garlic mustard was found to have the dominant effect where DSV and garlic mustard were co-occurring. These findings support the ongoing investigations into plant invasion processes, and therefore contribute to the development of effective strategies for invasive species management as well as site restoration techniques.

Soil fungi play an important role in regulating plant communities as well as above and below ground ecosystem-level processes; conversely, plant communities may also affect the structure and functionality of these root-associating fungi. Alteration of these fungal communities due to non-native plant invasion has the potential to disrupt biogeochemical cycling, soil structure, and plant growth. Both beneficial symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) as well as the total fungal community are potentially altered by aggressive invasive plant species in such a way as to disrupt existing native endophytic fungal communities in the soil post invasion. This disruption could provide a pathway for invasion and suggests the importance of investigating plant-fungal associations in invaded ranges. I used molecular techniques to characterize the fungal communities colonizing Vincetoxicum rossicum or Dog-strangling vine (DSV) and Alliaria petiolata or garlic mustard, both European natives that are currently well established in Eastern North America, as well as native plants that are commonly found persisting in the presence of dense colonies of DSV, as well as those same natives growing separately from DSV. Fungi colonizing different plant groups were analyzed using primers that target the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal operon in order to amplify total fungal species (TF), as well as primers designed to exclusively amplify AMF using small subunit rRNA sequences. Significant differences were observed in the diversity of both the TF and the AMF communities colonizing native plants in the invaded sites relative to the uninvaded sites. Sequencing work indicated that DSV forms associations with a broad array of fungal partners relative to proximal native plants, suggesting the likelihood of it being a fungal generalist. As well, DSV was found to associate with described opportunistic AMF such as Glomus intraradices, G. caledonium, G. fasciculatum and G. mosseae, while natives growing within DSV patches were not. Finally, garlic mustard was found to have the dominant effect where DSV and garlic mustard were co-occurring. These findings support the ongoing investigations into plant invasion processes, and therefore contribute to the development of effective strategies for invasive species management as well as site restoration techniques.

No description available.

Appendix 4.4 removed due to copyright restrictions: Suepaul, R.B., Alley, M.R., Jansen van Rensburg, M., 2010, Salt gland adenitis associated with bacteria in blue penguins (Eudyptula minor) from Hauraki Gulf (Auckland, New Zealand). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 46(1) : 46-54. / According to the New Zealand Threat Classification, little blue penguin (LBP) (Eudyptula minor) populations are under ‘gradual decline’. Although long-term data are available for some mainland populations, the status of LBP on offshore islands remains largely unknown. Most studies have focussed on breeding success and foraging ecology. However, there is a paucity of data pertaining to diseases and parasites, and the potential effects of these factors on LBP health, reproductive success and survival. To date, the LBP population on Tiritiri Matangi Island, Hauraki Gulf, Auckland, New Zealand, has only been monitored periodically, despite the island being an important habitat for LBP throughout their annual cycle. The overall aim of this study was to examine the relative importance of parasites and disease in relation to key aspects of LBP life-history, including: the annual cycle; reproductive success; energetic demands, immunity; and mortality. During 2006 and 2007, the reproductive success of LBP on Tiritiri Matangi Island was investigated with respect to lay date, nest site attributes, parental quality and ectoparasite loads. A nest treatment experiment was conducted to explore flea (Parapsyllus longicornis) and tick (Ixodes eudyptidis) effects on breeding success. Overall reproductive output was low, estimated at 33.3%, with an average of 0.67 chicks fledged per pair. Lay date and body condition (BC) appeared to be the main drivers of reproductive success, with early breeders fledging significantly more chicks than late breeders. Increased BC improved reproductive success. Although late breeders exhibited higher BC scores, increased chick mortality indicated that late nests face a reproductive trade-off. Treatment did not prove effective in reducing ectoparasite loads and there was no correlation between ectoparasite abundance in the nest and reproductive success. Throughout their geographic distribution, penguins are host to a range of ectoparasites. Using Ixodes eudyptidis ticks as indicators, ectoparasite-host dynamics were investigated over the course of one year, in relation to LBP life stages, body condition (BC) and haematological parameters. To investigate the presence of vector-borne diseases, blood parasite prevalence was determined using molecular techniques and microscopy. Tick load exhibited significant seasonal variation, being highest during periods of increased host availability i.e. moult and breeding. However, these increases in abundance were not associated with body condition or decreased reproductive success of adults. Nonetheless, LBP exhibited seasonal fluctuations in haematological parameters, with decreases in white blood cell concentrations during periods of increased energy demands and high tick loads. Blood parasite prevalence was low (<1%), determined to be Plasmodium sp. infection. No other blood parasites were found. These results indicate that the lifecycle of I. eudyptidis is tightly linked with that of its LBP hosts, and that infested individuals exhibit physiological responses to tick load. LBP exhibit annual fluctuations in mortality and experience periodic mass mortalities. To examine factors associated with mortality, post-mortems were conducted on 32 LBP from the Hauraki Gulf. Additionally, 128 LBP necropsy records were obtained from the National Wildlife Database (HUIA) for the period spanning April 1993-January 2009, and the causes of mortality were reviewed. Starvation and disease accounted for the highest mortality levels, with 65% of deaths attributed to either one or both of these factors. Furthermore, there was a strong association between starvation and parasites. Parasitic disease and diseases of uncertain aetiology were the most common disease types. In all age groups, the likelihood of infectious, non-infectious and disease of unknown aetiology was significantly higher in LBP that harboured one or more parasite species. Results from this study suggest that starvation and disease, including parasites, are significant factors associated with mortality of LBP in New Zealand, as has been found in Australian LBP populations. Parasites and disease are increasingly recognised as a challenge to the conservation of wildlife, and information regarding endemism of pathogens and parasites within populations is vital for determining ecosystem health, and identifying aberrant diseases.