<p> This study explores temporal trends in snowmelt timing, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations, and DOC fluxes in the large forested Penobscot watershed of Maine. The spatially-distributed process-based Regional Hydro-Ecological Simulation System (RHESSys) model was used to simulate streamflows and DOC fluxes and concentrations from 2004-2013 with peak transport generally associated with snowmelt. Results were evaluated with field measurements (streamflow, DOC concentrations and fluxes) and remotely sensed products (Net Primary Production (NPP) and Leaf Area Index (LAI)). The annual and inter annual variability in the amount of fluvial DOC export was further explored under future climate change scenarios and predicted land cover compositions of the watershed.</p><p>

abstract: Maricopa County has exceeded the 24 hour National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for Particulate Matter 10 micrometers in diameter or smaller (PM-10) of 150 micrograms per meter cubed (&#956;g/m3) since 1990. Construction and construction related activities have been recognized as the highest contributors to high PM-10 levels. An analysis of days exceeding 150 &#956;g/m3 for four of Maricopa County&#8223;s monitors that most frequently exceed this level during the years 2007, 2008, and 2009 has been performed. Noted contributors to PM-10 levels have been identified in the study, including earthmoving permits, stationary source permits, vacant lots, and agriculture on two mile radius maps around each monitor. PM-10 levels and wind speeds for each date exceeding 225 &#956;g/m3 were reviewed to find specific weather or anthropogenic sources for the high PM-10 levels. Weather patterns for days where multiple monitors exceed 150 &#956;g/m3 were reviewed to find correlations between daily weather and high PM-10 levels. It was found that areas with more earthmoving permits had fewer days exceeding 150 &#956;g/m3 than areas with more stationary permits, vacant lots, or agriculture. The Higley and Buckeye monitors showed increases in PM-10 levels when winds came from areas covered by agricultural land. West 43rd Avenue and Durango monitors saw PM-10 rise when the winds came in over large stationary sources, like aggregate plants. A correlation between weather events and PM-10 exceedances was also found on multiple monitors for dates both in 2007, and 2009. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S.Tech Technology 2011

abstract: Traditional methods of environmental regulation and enforcement have been questioned over the last decade. Due to the number of environmental regulations, and subsequent cost of enforcement, governments have begun to incentivize the adoption of environmental management systems (EMSs). These management systems encourage companies to better manage their environmental performance voluntarily. It is the purpose of this study to list the types of government incentives that have been used and categorize them into three groups based off of their characteristics. Ten incentive types were identified and put into three categories; (a) reducing the barriers to EMS adoption; (b) enhancing benefits derived from EMS adoption, and (c) rewarding EMS implementers with reduced enforcement. The research shows that each category of incentives encourages different manufacturing facilities to adopt EMSs. Using data from previously conducted case studies and surveys to determine what type of manufacturing facilities are affected, this study finds that government incentives have been shown to have a measurable impact on the decision makers of manufacturing facilities to adopt an EMS. The study concludes that a combination of traditional environmental regulation used with targeted incentives provide the most efficient use of resources by governments. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S.Tech Environmental Resources 2011

Biologists have traditionally studied adverse health effects of contaminants on wildlife, whereas public health researchers have independently studied effects of the same chemicals on humans. This siloed approach limits maximal progress towards understanding and managing pollution if relevant findings are not translated between fields. A new threat to human health, and potentially ecological health, is metabolic disruption. Metabolism disrupting chemicals (MDCs) are environmental chemicals that can act at systemic and molecular levels across the lifespan to interfere with normal adipose tissue development, lipid storage in the liver, and alter whole-body energetics. Using fish from New Bedford Harbor (NBH), Massachusetts, a marine Superfund site, this research demonstrates the benefit of using a holistic approach to examine exposures to and effects of contaminants in urban waterways. The overall goals of this dissertation were to investigate trends in polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination in NBH and to test the hypothesis that PCB and/or organotin exposure has resulted in metabolic disruption in Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) resident in New Bedford Harbor. First, trends in PCBs in seafood harvested throughout NBH since 2003 were characterized over time and space. PCBs declined in shellfish, but not finfish, over time. My risk assessment shows that human health risks associated with seafood consumption have decreased, but safe levels in seafood are not likely to be reached by the end of NBH sediment remediation, in the early 2020s. PCBs and tributyltin (TBT), a pollutant also commonly found in commercial harbors because of its use as an antifouling agent in marine paints, act as MDCs by distinct mechanisms. Dioxin-like PCBs act through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. TBT acts through nuclear receptors, particularly PPARγ and RXR. In the second aim, using historical sediments and current sediments, I document the presence of tin in NBH above background levels. Biological investigations show that adult killifish two generations removed from NBH have more adipose tissue and higher levels of liver triglycerides than killifish from an uncontaminated location. Initial analyses show that changes in PPAR signaling may be particularly important in male killifish. In the third aim, I demonstrate that killifish embryos are minimally responsive to changes in PPARγ-regulated gene expression when treated with TBT or mammalian agonists. However, embryonic TBT exposure interferes with caudal fin development, likely through RXR activation and a reduction in bone formation signaling. Overall, these findings demonstrate metabolic disruption is occurring in a fish species resident to a highly polluted harbor and support the use of sentinel species not only for addressing potential human exposures but also potential adverse human health effects.

abstract: Bacteroides have been suggested as alternative indicators of fecal pollution since they are highly abundant in feces and are thought to have limited potential to grow in environment. However, recent literature suggests that Bacteroides can potentially survive within water distribution systems. The first objective of this study was therefore to investigate the validity of Bacteroides as a fecal indicator for drinking water through laboratory experiments and field studies. Experiments were performed using a laboratory scale PVC model water distribution system that was spiked with 109 Bacteroides. Samples were collected over the following four and analyzed by culture and molecular-based techniques. Second, field studies were performed by collecting water meters from two large chlorinated water distribution systems in central Arizona. Upon removal for repair by city personnel, meters were collected and biofilms samples were gathered within two hours. The biofilms were then analyzed using culture and molecular-based assays. The results from these studies support the hypothesis that Bacteroides DNA may be found in water distribution systems despite the difficulty of cultivating these bacterial cells. These experiments present the importance of considering biofilm interactions with fecal indicator bacteria when performing molecular assays on environmental samples, as biofilms may provide protection from high oxygen concentrations and grazing protozoa in bulk water that limit the persistence Bacteroides in the environment. Although the significance of biofilm interactions with surface or recreational waters may be small, they are likely important when considering drinking water delivered through distribution systems. The second objective of this study was to investigate alternative detection methodologies for the fecal indicator Bacteroides. In particular, this study focused on using a simplified protocol of Nucleic Acid Sequence Based Amplification (NASBA) and Thermophilic Helicase-Dependent Amplification (tHDA) to amplify the highly conserved 16s rRNA gene in the genomic DNA of fecal indicator Bacteroides. The results of this study show that the simplified NASBA procedure was not able to amplify the target, while continuous problems with tHDA exposed the methods lack of reliability. These results suggest higher reliability in the isothermal amplification methods needs to be achieved before application to environmental samples. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering 2012

Many valuable ecosystems such as springs, wetlands, lakes and rivers depend on the presence of groundwater. These ecosystems, known as groundwater dependent ecosystems (GDEs), are biodiversity hotpots and provide important habitats for many endangered species. In recent decades, groundwater over-abstraction, contamination and climate change have put serious pressure on groundwater resources and groundwater-dependent ecosystems. This has shifted water management towards fully-integrated approach in which groundwater, surface water bodies and dependent ecosystems are treated as one management unit. The current EU legislation and the corresponding Finnish laws require assessment of the impacts of various land uses and groundwater abstraction to GDEs. The role of groundwater in GDEs is not, however, in many cases thoroughly understood. For this reason, groundwater-surface water (GW-SW) interactions and their dynamics need further investigation. Integrated groundwater-surface water modelling is a unique method to study connections between surface water and groundwater, and thus it is a potential tool for evaluation of various anthropogenic or climatic effects on GDEs. The aim of this thesis was to examine the performance of fully-integrated physically-based GW-SW modelling to simulate groundwater dependent ecosystems in a case study of the Kälväsvaara esker aquifer located in Northern Finland. The target was to create a model of the geologically complex esker and its adjacent areas that captures all type of GDEs present in the area i.e. fens, kettle hole lakes, streams and springs without their prior definition to the model. The study investigated how the model should be scaled and what information is needed to replicate the studied GDEs. For this purpose, a simple model was built using the fully-integrated physically-based GW-SW code HydroGeoSphere. The model was run in steady-state and it was calibrated manually by the try-and-error method. The model did not include the forestry ditch systems and it assumed homogeneity within various zones of overland and porous domains. The effect of evapotranspiration was represented in a lumped manner through the term of effective rainfall. The model results were evaluated by comparing the simulation outputs with the field measurements and expected trends for the variables where data was not available. The employed model reproduced relatively well the measured groundwater and lake levels as well as other spatially-distributed variables such as saturation, water depths and GW-SW exchange fluxes. Majority of lakes, wetlands and streams emerged during simulations in a natural way as a result of geological and topographical conditions. In contrast, small scale GDEs such as springs were not so well represented by the model, indicating that small-scale GDEs are more challenging to model in a physically-based manner without detailed information on the geology around these water bodies. The overall good consistency between simulations and observations demonstrated that the fully-integrated physically-based GW-SW modelling can be a viable method to simulate various boreal groundwater dependent ecosystems, making it feasible tool to study effects of anthropogenic actions, such as pumping or climate change, on GDEs. The spatial and temporal analysis of exchange fluxes under various scenarios could enhance our understanding about the dynamic behavior of GDEs, role of groundwater in these ecosystems and their sensitivity to deterioration under transient hydrological and climatic stresses. / Monet arvokkaat ekosysteemit, kuten lähteet, kosteikot, järvet ja joet riippuvat pohjaveden läsnäolosta. Nämä ekosysteemit, niin sanotut pohjavedestä riippuvaiset (PV) ekosysteemit, ovat luonnon monimuotoisuudeltaan rikkaita ja tarjoavat tärkeitä elinympäristöjä monille uhanalaisille lajeille. Viime vuosikymmeninä liiallinen pohjavedenotto, pohjaveden saastuminen ja ilmastonmuutos ovat aiheuttaneet vakavia paineita pohjavesivaroille sekä pohjavedestä riippuvaisille ekosysteemeille. Tämän seurauksena vesitalous on siirtynyt kohti täysin integroitua mallia, jossa pohjavesiä, pintavesiä ja PV-ekosysteemejä käsitellään yhtenä vesienhoitoalueena. Nykyinen EU-lainsäädäntö ja vastaavat Suomen lait edellyttävät eri maankäytön ja pohjavedenoton vaikutusten arviointia PV-ekosysteemeihin. Pohjaveden rooli PV-ekosysteemeissä on kuitenkin monesti tuntematon. Tästä syystä tarvitaan lisätutkimuksia pinta- ja pohjaveden vuorovaikutuksista ja niiden dynamiikasta. Täysin integroitu numeerinen pohjavesi-pintavesi virtausmallintaminen on ainutlaatuinen menetelmä tutkia pinta- ja pohjavesien yhteyksiä, ollen täten potentiaalinen työkalu arvioimaan ihmistoiminnan ja ilmaston vaikutusta PV-ekosysteemeihin. Diplomityön tavoitteena oli tutkia integroidun numeerisen pohjavesi-pintavesi virtausmallinnuksen kykyä simuloida PV-ekosysteemiä Pohjois-Suomessa sijaitsevan Kälväsvaaran tapauksessa. Tarkemmin, työn tarkoituksena oli luoda malli geologisesti monimutkaiselle harjulaajentumalle ja sen lähialueille siten, että alueella esiintyvät erityyppiset PV-ekosysteemit kuten letot, suppalammet, purot ja lähteet muodostuvat malliin ilman niiden erillistä määrittelyä mallin rakentamisvaiheessa. Tutkimuksessa selvitettiin myös, miten mallia pitäisi mitoittaa ja mitä tietoja tarvitaan mallintamaan alueen PV-ekosysteemejä. Tätä varten rakennettiin yksinkertainen malli käyttäen täysin integroitua numeerista pohjavesi-pintavesi HydroGeoSphere-virtausmalliohjelmistoa. Malli ajettiin ajan suhteen muuttumattomassa tilassa (steady-state) ja se kalibroitiin manuaalisesti yritys-ja-erehdys menetelmällä. Malliin ei sisällytetty erikseen metsäojituksia ja lisäksi maanpinnallisten ja maanalaisten vyöhykkeiden oletettiin olevan homogeenisia. Kokonaishaihdunnan vaikutukset huomioitiin keskitetyllä tavalla tehokassadannan termiä käyttäen. Mallin tuloksia arvioitiin vertailemalla simulaatioita kenttämittausten, tai havaintojen puuttuessa, odotettujen trendien suhteen. Rakennettu malli jäljensi suhteellisen hyvin pohjaveden ja järvien pintojen havainnot sekä muita alueellisesti jakautuneita muuttujia kuten maan suhteellista kosteutta, pintavesien syvyyttä ja pinta- ja pohjavesien välistä vuota. Suurin osa alueen järvistä, kosteikoista ja puroista muodostui simulaatioiden aikana luonnollisella tavalla geologisten ja topografisten olosuhteiden seurauksena. Sen sijaan pienen mittakaavan PV-ekosysteemit kuten lähteet eivät olleet yhtä hyvin edustettuna mallin tuloksissa. Tämä viittaa siihen, että pienimuotoiset PV-ekosysteemit ovat haastavampia mallintaa fysikaalispohjaisella tavalla ilman yksityiskohtaista tietoa vesistöjä ympäröivästä geologiasta. Kaiken kaikkiaan hyvä yhtäpitävyys simulaatiotulosten ja havaintojen välillä osoittaa, että täysin integroitu pinta- ja pohjavesi mallinnus on soveltuva tapa simuloida eri PV-ekosysteemejä. Täten se on toteuttamiskelpoinen työkalu arvioimaan ihmistoiminnan kuten vedenoton tai ilmastonmuutoksen vaikutusta PV-ekosysteemeihin. Alueellinen ja ajallinen pinta- ja pohjavesien välinen analyysi erilaisissa skenaarioissa voisi lisätä tietoutta PV-ekosysteemien dynaamisesta käyttäytymisestä, pohjaveden roolista niissä ja niiden mahdollisesta heikentymisestä ajan suhteen muuttuvien hydrologisten- ja ilmastollisten rasitusten alla.

Tässä diplomityössä tutkittiin, kuinka ympäristöjohtamista voidaan soveltaa pienessä organisaatiossa, jolle haluttiin luoda toimintamalli ympäristöasioiden käsittelyyn ja hoitoon ilman ympäristöjärjestelmän sertifiointia. Työssä laadittiin Vesikolmio Oy:lle toimintaa ohjaavat ympäristömittarit- ja indikaattorit, joiden avulla yhtiö voi seurata ympäristöasioiden kehitystä omassa toiminnassaan. Lisäksi työssä etsittiin toimintatapoja, joiden avulla Vesikolmio voi viestiä ympäristöasioiden kehityksestä sidosryhmilleen ja kuinka työntekijät voivat ottaa ympäristöasiat huomioon omassa toiminnassaan sekä miten pienessä organisaatiossa voidaan jakaa vastuut ympäristöasioiden hoidossa. Vesikolmio Oy on tukkuvesiyhtiö, jonka tehtävänä on talousveden hankinta ja jätevesien puhdistaminen sekä toiminta-alueensa kuntakeskusten välisten siirtolinjojen ylläpito. Vesikolmion osakkaita ovat Ylivieskan, Nivalan, Kalajoen ja Haapajärven kaupungit sekä Sievin ja Alavieskan kunnat. Vesikolmio Oy:lle on tehty ympäristöasioiden nykytila-analyysi vuoden 2012 aikana, joka on pohjautunut ISO 14001 -standardin mukaiseen ympäristöjärjestelmään. Ympäristöjohtaminen on organisaation toimintaan liittyvien ympäristöasioiden hallitsemista ja kehittämistä niin, että toiminnan aiheuttamia negatiivisia ympäristövaikutuksia voidaan vähentää ja välttää. Ympäristöjohtaminen voidaan luontevasti liittää osaksi yrityksen muuta johtamis- ja päätöksentekojärjestelmää, mutta sen toimivuus yrityksessä varmistetaan koko henkilöstön sitoutumisella toimintatapaan. ISO 14001 -standardi ja EMAS-järjestelmä ovat molemmat yrityksen ympäristöasioidenhallintaan kehitettyjä järjestelmiä, joiden tarkoituksena on helpottaa yrityksen ympäristöjohtamista. Vesikolmiolle rakennettiin mittaristo ympäristöasioiden seurantaa varten hyödyntäen suurempien vesihuoltolaitosten ympäristömittareita ja -indikaattoreita. Ympäristölaskenta keskittyy energian- ja kemikaalien kulutukseen, pohjavesien käyttöön ja suojeluun sekä liikenteen aiheuttamiin ympäristövaikutuksiin. Mittaristo on rakennettu niin, että tarkasteltavat kohteet on helposti nostettavissa esiin Vesikolmion eri toiminnoista eikä sen käyttö kuormita henkilöstöä kohtuuttomasti. Lisäksi vastuu ympäristölaskennasta on jaettu useammalle henkilölle, mikä keventää yhden henkilön vastuuta ympäristöasioiden hoidosta ja nopeuttaa samalla ympäristöasioihin liittyvää tiedonkulkua. Mittaristoa on mahdollisuus kehittää tulevaisuudessa Kalajoen uuden keskuspuhdistamon myötä, jolloin mittaristoon voidaan lisätä esimerkiksi lietteen hyötykäyttöasteen seuranta. Ympäristöviestintää voidaan kehittää lisäämällä vuosikertomukseen oma osio ympäristöasioille, jossa käydään läpi ympäristölaskennan tuloksia. Ympäristölaskenta auttaa henkilöstöä seuraamaan ympäristöasioiden kehitystä ja luo kannustimen parantavien toimenpiteiden löytämiseksi eri toimintoihin. / The aim of this study was to determine how the environmental management can be applied in a small organization, which wanted to create an operations model of environmental issues handling and management without an environmental management system certification. The environmental measurers and indicators were created to guide the operations of the Vesikolmio Oy and to follow up the development of environmental issues. Additionally this study is looking for the practices to communicate the development of environmental issues for Vesikolmios stakeholder groups and how employees can take environmental issues into account in their operations, as well as how a small organization can share the responsibilities of environmental issues. The Vesikolmio Oy is a wholesale water company, which is responsible for drinking water supply and wastewater purification as well as the maintenance of transmission lines between the centers of the operation area. Shareholders of the Vesikolmio are cities of Ylivieska, Nivala, Kalajoki and Haapajärvi and municipalities of Sievi and Alavieska. Vesikolmios present state analysis of the environmental issues a based on the ISO 14001 -standard has been done during year 2012. Environmental management includes management and development of environmental issues related to the organization’s activities so that the negative environmental impacts of the operation can be reduced and avoided. Environmental management can be easily integrated into the company’s management and decision-making system, but it’s functionality in the company is ensured by the commitment of the staff to the approach. The ISO 14001 -standard and the EMAS-system are generated for the companies to control environmental issues and to ease environmental management. The instrumentation for environmental monitoring to Vesikolmio was planned by utilizing the environmental measurers and indicators used by larger water and wastewater supply plants. Environmental accounting focuses on consumption of energy and chemicals, groundwater use and protection, and the environmental impact of transportation. The instrumentation is designed so that observed targets are easily raised out in Vesikolmio’s various operations and its use does not burden employees. Also responsibility for environmental accounting is divided to multiple persons, this will reduce one person’s responsibility of environmental issues and at the same time will speed up the information flow about environmental issues. The indicators have the opportunity to be developed in the future, when the new central wastewater purification plant of Kalajoki is in use the monitoring of sludge utilization rate can be added into the instrumentation. Environmental communications can be developed by inserting a section of environmental issues into the annual report, where the environmental accounting results are gone through. Environmental accounting helps employees to monitor environmental developments and creates opportunity to find operations to be improved.

Oulun Jätehuollon Ruskon jätekeskuksen viimeisin jätteen loppusijoitusalueen laajennusosa on otettu käyttöön vuonna 2010. Ennen Laanilan jätteenpolttolaitoksen ja Oulun Jätehuollon lajitteluareenan valmistumista vuonna 2012 Ruskon jätekeskuksen loppusijoituskapasiteetin arvioitiin riittävän noin kahdeksaksi vuodeksi. Loppusijoituskapasiteetin loputtua Oulun Jätehuollon alkuperäisenä toimintasuunnitelmana oli uuden jätekeskuksen rakentaminen Punaisenladonkankaalle Haukiputaalle. Hanke kuitenkin peruuntui muun muassa osayleiskaavan puuttumisen ja asukkaiden vastustuksen vuoksi. Jätehuollon jatkuvuuden turvaamiseksi Ruskon jätekeskukseen ollaan kaavoittamassa uutta laajennusaluetta. Tämän diplomityön tavoitteena oli laatia yleissuunnitelma Ruskon jätekeskuksen uudesta laajennusalueesta. Lisäksi merkittävän osan työstä muodosti loppusijoituskapasiteetin jäljellä olevan käyttöajan uudelleenarviointi ennen laajennusalueen rakentamista. Jätteenpolttolaitoksen ja Oulun Jätehuollon lajitteluareenan valmistuttua Ruskon jätekeskukseen loppusijoitettavan jätteen määrä on vähentynyt merkittävästi. Jätteen laatu on myös muuttunut huomattavan paljon epäorgaanisemmaksi. Työn alussa käsiteltiin lyhyesti jätealaa ohjaavaa lainsäädäntöä Suomessa ja EU:ssa. Lisäksi esiteltiin pääpiirteittäin Suomen ja EU:n jätelainsäädäntöjen velvoituksesta laadittu Valtakunnallinen jätesuunnitelma vuoteen 2016 ja sen tavoitteita mukaileva Oulun läänin alueellinen jätehuoltosuunnitelma. Jätealan toimijoiden kannalta tärkeinä tekijöinä käsiteltiin jäteveroa ja vuonna 2016 voimaan astuvaa orgaanisen jätteen kaatopaikkasijoituskieltoa. Työn alussa käsiteltiin myös kaatopaikkojen pohjarakenteille, vesienhallinnalle ja kaatopaikkakaasun keräykselle asetettuja vaatimuksia. Työssä käytiin läpi jätehuollon järjestämistä Oulun alueella, erityisesti Oulun Jätehuollon kannalta. Oulun Jätehuollon toiminnan esittelyn jälkeen arvioitiin Ruskon jätekeskuksen loppusijoituskapasiteetin jäljellä olevaa käyttöaikaa. Käyttöaikatarkastelua varten selvitettiin jäljellä oleva jätetäyttötilavuus ja arvioitiin tulevaisuudessa loppusijoitettavien jätteiden määriä. Ennen laajennusta Ruskon jätekeskuksen alueella on mahdollista lisätä loppusijoituskapasiteettia rakentamalla jätetäyttöalue rakennusjätteen vanhan ja uuden loppusijoitusalueen väliin. Alustavien suunnitelmien mukaan välitäyttö voidaan toteuttaa siten, että lisäkapasiteettia saadaan 270 000 m³ tai 690 000 m³. Tulevaisuudessa loppusijoitettava jätemäärä arvioitiin Oulun Jätehuollon ylläpitämien jätemäärätilastojen ja Oulun Jätehuollon henkilökunnan kanssa käytyjen haastattelujen perusteella. Koska tulevaisuudessa loppusijoitettavan jätemäärän tarkka arviointi on mahdotonta, käyttöaikatarkasteluun otettiin mukaan jätemäärät, jotka olisivat odotettua pienempiä tai vastaavasti odotettua suurempia. Loppusijoituskapasiteetin käyttöaikatarkastelun perusteella havaittiin, että ilman uusia investointejakin Ruskon jätekeskuksessa riittää loppusijoituskapasiteettia vähintään 15 vuodeksi. Toteuttamalla jo suunniteltu rakennusjätteen loppusijoitusalueiden välitäyttö, loppusijoituskapasiteetti riittää ilman laajennusaluettakin jopa yli 100 vuodeksi. Uuden laajennusalueen osalta suunniteltiin yleissuunnittelutasoisesti laajennusalueella tarvittavat toiminnot sekä niiden laajuudet ja sijoittuminen alueelle. Laajennusalueelle rakennettavien loppusijoitusalueiden sekä välivarastointi- ja käsittelykenttien osalta esitettiin vaihtoehtoja käytettävistä pohjarakenteista. Lisäksi käsiteltiin vesienhallinnan ja kaasunkeräyksen järjestämistä sekä alueen liikennejärjestelyjä. Lopuksi laskettiin käyttöaika laajennusalueelle hahmotellulle tavanomaisen jätteen loppusijoitusalueelle. Toteuttamalla uusi loppusijoitusalue tässä työssä hahmotellussa laajuudessa, mahdollistetaan tavanomaisen jätteen loppusijoittaminen pelkästään uudelle laajennusalueelle vähintään useiksi kymmeniksi vuosiksi. / The latest expansion of landfill area in Oulu Waste Management’s Rusko waste centre was constructed in 2010. Before the completion of Laanila’s municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration plant and Oulu Waste Management’s sorting arena (Lare), landfill capacity was estimated to run out in about eight years. The original plan of Oulu Waste Management was to construct a new waste centre to Punaisenladonkangas in Haukipudas. However, the plans were cancelled due to lack of zone plan and opposition from residents. Zoning process for expanding Rusko waste centre has been started in order to ensure the continuity of waste management in Oulu region. The aim of this master’s thesis was to prepare a general plan for the expansion of Rusko waste centre. In addition, a significant part of the thesis was to re-estimate the lifetime of landfill capacity in Rusko waste centre, before the expansion. Now that Laanila’s MSW incineration plant and sorting arena Lare are operative, the amount of landfilled waste has decreased significantly. The quality of landfilled waste has also changed to much less organic. In the beginning waste legislation in Finland and EU was briefly discussed. Also, National waste plan until 2016 and The regional waste plan for Oulu province were introduced. Waste taxation and restriction of landfilling organic waste (coming into force in 2016) were introduced as important matters in the field of waste management. In the early part of the thesis, landfill sealing structures, leachate management and collection of landfill gas were presented in general level. In the next part, arrangement of waste management in Oulu region, especially from Oulu Waste Management’s point of view was introduced. For the estimation of current landfill capacity’s lifetime (without expansion), the available landfill volume and landfilled waste amounts in the future were estimated. Current landfill capacity in Rusko waste centre can be increased by building more landfill area between construction waste’s old and current landfill areas. By filling the gap between these two landfills, 270 000 m³ or 690 000 m³ new landfill capacity can be gained, depending on the implementation. Amounts of waste landfilled in the future were estimated based on Oulu Waste Management’s statistics and interviews of Oulu Waste Management’s staff. Since it is impossible to get exact figures, also amounts of waste that would be less or more than expected were included in the estimation. Based on the lifetime estimation, it was found that even without new investments, the landfill capacity in Rusko waste centre will last for at least 15 years. By also filling the gap between construction waste sites, the landfill capacity even without expansion may last for over 100 years. For the expansion of Rusko waste centre, required facilities with their extent and location were planned in general level. Options for sealing structures usable in the landfill, treatment and storage areas were introduced. In addition, leachate management, landfill gas collection and traffic arrangements in the expansion area were discussed. Landfill capacity’s lifetime was also estimated in the expansion area of Rusko waste centre. With the size and shape of the landfill used as an example, the landfill capacity in only expansion area was estimated to last for at least several decades.

<p> As urbanization increases, Best Management Practices (BMPs) are used to reduce pollutants otherwise released to streams. Rain gardens are a type of BMPs that are vegetated depressions with highly permeable soil to treat urban runoff. These structures are traditionally assessed using inflow-outflow studies with an emphasis on quantifying removal efficiency. This approach neglects controls on nutrient processing within the rain garden and their role as potential hotspots in urban systems. To bridge this gap, three rain gardens in Charlotte, NC were quantified for soil water nutrient concentrations (ammonium, nitrate, phosphate, DOC) during storms and seasonal potential denitrification rates. The rain gardens were located at Myers Park High School (MP), Park Road Park (PR), and Bruns Academy Elementary School (BR) and vary with vegetation, size, treatment area, and age (4,7, and 15 respectively). The results identified no significant difference in the runoff between site or season which indicated differences within soil water concentrations were caused by structural variances of the rain gardens. Results identified soil water ammonium concentrations were significantly different between sites (<i>p</i>=0.0201). Soil water ammonium concentrations were also found to be significantly lower in the summer compared to the winter when all sites were aggregated together (<i>p</i>=0.0201). Nitrate concentrations were significantly higher (<i>p</i>&lt;0.0001) in soil water across sites, and significantly lower (<i>p</i>&lt;0.0001) in winter soil water compared to summer. These trends were caused by the presence of an underdrain and high infiltration rates that limited favorable denitrification conditions from existing. The potential denitrification rates were 0.39, 0.12, and 0.65 &micro;g/gDM/hr at MP, PR, and BR respectively. Overall, the nitrification process attributed to the decrease in soil water ammonium and the accumulation of soil water nitrate. Without prolonged anoxic conditions present in the rain garden nitrate was stored until subsequent storms exported nitrate to the receiving stream. The sites with the highest soil moisture percent after the storm also had higher denitrification rates. Bruns Academy had very high soil nitrate (2.75 mg/L) compared to the other sites (0.42 and 0.28 mg/L at MP and BR respectively) which may have been caused by a pollutant exposure prior to this study. Phosphate was variable between sites and was likely due to the difference in phosphorus in the original soil media. Between similarly constructed MP and PR, soil water phosphate was higher at MP (0.032 mg/L) than PR (0.007 mg/L). This suggests more adsorption occurred due to an increased ratio of the rain garden area to the treatment area as well as plant assimilation. DOC was different among sites and had an inverse relationship with potential denitrification rates. PR had the lowest denitrification rate and presented the largest soil water DOC concentrations with an average concentration of 14 mg/L. The age gradient of the rain gardens in this study proved rain gardens still have the ability to remove pollutants as the structures age (with the exception of nitrate). The addition of soil water concentrations and potential denitrification rates in this study showed internal processes of rain gardens should be explored further to understand the longevity of these structures, as well as nutrient export as aging occurs.</p><p>

The Mara River in East Africa is currently experiencing poor water quality and increased fluctuations in seasonal flow. This study investigated technically effective and economically viable Best Management Practices for adoption in the Mara River Basin of Kenya that can stop further water resources degradation. A survey of 155 farmers was conducted in the upper catchment of the Kenyan side of the river basin. Farmers provided their assessment of BMPs that would best suit their farm in terms of water quality improvement, economic feasibility, and technicalsuitability. Cost data on different practices from farmers and published literature was collected. The results indicated that erosion control structures and runoff management practices were most suitable for adoption. The study estimated the total area that would be improved to restore water quality and reduce further water resources degradation. Farmers were found to incur losses from adopting new practices and would therefore require monetary support.