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<p>Ion exchange equilibrium data can be used to predict the viability of a proposed process. Ion exchange equilibria have been studied considerably since the 1950's but the complexity of the basic research has tended to reduce its direct usefulness to the practising engineer. This research has been undertaken to determine if a moderately simple method of experimentation and analysis could be applied to predict ion exchange equilibria to within limits of accuracy acceptable to engineers.</p> <p> The first step in the research was to develop a simple mathematical model for a binary system to calculate the selectivity coefficient and resin capacity from batch experiments. The model was successfully applied for the exchange of Na+ with five heavy metal ions: Ni²⁺; Cu²⁺; Cd²⁺; Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺ on a typical commercial resin (Dowex HCR-W2). The binary parameters were then used to predict the equilibrium values for several ternary systems. From these ternary experiments, it was determined that binary data can be used to predict ternary systems if the selectivity coefficients of the two ions involved are either almost equal or differed by at least a factor of five. A kinetic effect was proposed to explain the discrepancies observed between the predicted and experimental values for the intermediate ratios of selectivity coefficients of the involved ions, although further work is required to confirm this hypothesis.</p> <p> Several packed bed experiments were performed to check some of the results from the binary and ternary system experiments and as exploratory work for future research. These experiments confirmed the capacity data calculated from the binary system experiments and were consistent with the trends observed in the ternary system experiments.</p> / Thesis / Master of Engineering (ME)

The measurement of vapour-liquid equilibrium data is extremely important as such data are crucial for the accurate design, simulation and optimization of the majority of separation processes, including distillation, extraction and absorption. This study involved the measurement of vapour-liquid equilibrium data, using a modified version of the static total pressure apparatus designed within the Thermodynamics Research Unit by J.D. Raal and commissioned by Motchelaho, (Motchelaho, 2006 and Raal et al., 2011). This apparatus provides a very simple and accurate means of obtaining P-x data using only isothermal total pressure and overall composition (z) measurements. Phase sampling is not required. Phase equilibrium measurement procedures using this type of apparatus are often tedious, protracted and repetitive. It is therefore useful and realizable in the rapidly advancing digital age, to incorporate computer-aided operation, to decrease the man hours required to perform such measurements. The central objective of this work was to develop and implement a control scheme, to fully automate the original static total pressure apparatus of Raal et al. (2011). The scheme incorporates several pressure feedback closed loops, to execute process step re-initialization, valve positioning and motion control in a stepwise fashion. High resolution stepper motors were used to engage the dispensers, as they provided a very accurate method of regulating the introduction of precise desired volumes of components into the cell. Once executed, the control scheme requires approximately two days to produce a single forty data points (P-x) isotherm, and minimizes human intervention to two to three hours. In addition to automation, the apparatus was modified to perform moderate pressure measurements up to 1.5 MPa. Vapour-liquid equilibrium test measurements were performed using both the manual and automated operating modes to validate the operability and reproducibility of the apparatus. The test systems measured include the water (1) + propan-1-ol (2) system at 313.15 K and the n-hexane (1) + butan- 2-ol system at 329.15 K. Phase equilibrium data of binary systems, containing the solvent morpholine-4-carbaldehyde (NFM) was then measured. The availability of vapour-liquid equilibrium data for binary systems containing NFM is limited in the literature. The new systems measured include: n-hexane (1) + NFM (2) at 343.15, 363.15 and 393.15 K, as well as n-heptane (1) + NFM (2) at 343.15, 363.15 and 393.15 K. The modified apparatus is quite efficient as combinations of the slightly volatile NFM with highly volatile alkane constituents were easily and accurately measured. The apparatus also allows for accurate vapour-liquid equilibrium measurements in the dilute composition regions. A standard uncertainty in the equilibrium pressure reading, within the 0 to 100 kPa range was calculated to be 0.106 kPa, and 1.06 kPa for the 100 to 1000 kPa pressure range. A standard uncertainty in the equilibrium temperature of 0.05 K was calculated. The isothermal data obtained were modelled using the combined (-) method described by Barker (1953). This involved the calculation of binary interaction parameters, by fitting the data to various thermodynamic models. The virial equation of state with the Hayden-O’Connell (1975) and modified Tsonopoulos (Long et al., 2004) second virial coefficient correlations were used in this work to account for vapour phase non-ideality. The Wilson (1964), NRTL (Renon and Prausnitz, 1968), Tsuboka-Katayama-Wilson (1975) and modified Universal Quasi-Chemical (Anderson and Prausnitz, 1978) activity coefficient models were used to account for the liquid phase non-ideality. A stability analysis was carried out on all the new systems measured to ensure that two-liquid phase formation did not occur in the measured temperature range. A model-free method based on the numerical integration of the coexistence equation was also used to determine the vapour phase compositions and activity coefficients from the measured P-z data. These results compare well with the results obtained by the model-dependent method. The infinite dilution activity coefficients for the systems under consideration were determined by the method of Maher and Smith (1979b), and by suitable extrapolation methods. Excess enthalpy and excess entropy data were calculated for the systems measured, using the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation in conjunction with the fundamental excess property relation. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Orientadores: Eduardo Augusto Caldas Batista, José Vladimir de Oliveira / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-22T05:44:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dalmolin_IredeAngelaLucini_D.pdf: 9550332 bytes, checksum: 061256cf12d61dd7b97065d987efd625 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: A utilização de resíduos e o emprego de tecnologias ambientalmente seguras são tendências gerais de pesquisa da comunidade científica, impulsionadas pelas exigências governamentais e apelo do mercado consumidor, que buscam cada vez mais produtos naturais de alta qualidade. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi obter o extrato de sementes de uva através de extração por fluido supercrítico, caracterizá-lo química e fisicamente, e aplicá-lo ao encapsulamento em poli-(hidroxibutirato-cohidroxivalerato) utilizando tecnologia de antissolvente supercrítico. Para tanto, o estudo do ponto de vista termodinâmico, através de dados de equilíbrio de fases e modelagem, fez-se necessário para obtenção de informações dos sistemas de interesse à extração bem como ao encapsulamento. A caracterização desse extrato aponta uma importante fonte natural de ácido linoléico, como componente majoritário, e também de ácidos oléico, palmítico e esteárico, e de antioxidantes e fitoesteróis. Através de separadores dispostos em série foi possível fracionar por meio de despressurização e obter extratos com diferentes composições desejadas. Na determinação de dados de equilíbrio de fases do sistema Extrato de Sementes de Uva (ESU) + Dióxido de Carbono (CO2) + Etanol, verificou-se que a quantidade de água no extrato, remanescente da matéria-prima, prejudicava a obtenção de dados de equilíbrio com porcentagens de (CO2 + Etanol) inferiores a 70 %. Observaram-se transições bifásicas do tipo Líquido-Vapor Ponto de Bolha (LV-PB), Líquido-Vapor Ponto de Orvalho (LV-PO) e Líquido-Líquido (LL), e trifásicas do tipo Líquido-Líquido-Vapor (LLV). Com a redução de água no ESU foi possível descrever o comportamento do equilíbrio de fases, porém para ambas as temperaturas estudadas ocultaram-se as transições LV-PO. Para o mesmo sistema, a modelagem foi feita utilizando a equação de Peng-Robinson, que foi capaz de correlacionar os dados com a utilização de dois parâmetros de interação binária ajustados. Dados de equilíbrio de fases do sistema ESU + CO2 +Diclorometano (DCM) foram determinados onde transições bifásicas do tipo LV-PB e LVPO foram observadas. Verificou-se que a adição de ESU em solução de DCM, em concentrações de até 15 kg·m-3, não influenciou nas pressões de transição do sistema binário CO2 + DCM. O encapsulamento foi realizado com percentual de encapsulamento de até 72 % de ESU / Abstract: The use of residues and environmentally safe and benign technologies comprise a general research trend of scientific community, stimulated by government requirements and appeal to the consumer market which increasingly seek natural products of high quality. In this context, the aim of this work was to obtain grape seed extract by supercritical fluid extraction, characterize it chemically and physically, and apply it to the encapsulation in polymer poly-(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) using supercritical anti-solvent technology. Thus, the study from the thermodynamic point of view, by phase equilibrium data and modeling, was necessary to obtain information of the interest system for the extraction and for encapsulation. According to the characterization, grape seed extract is an important natural source of linoleic acid, as major component, and also by oleic, palmitic and stearic acids, and antioxidants and phytosterols. Through separators displayed in series was possible to fractionate the depressurization and to obtain extracts with different desired compositions. In the determination of phase equilibrium data of the system Grape Seed Extract (GSE) + Carbon Dioxide (CO2) + Ethanol, it was found that the amount of water in the extract, remaining in the raw materials, limited obtaining equilibrium data with percentages of (CO2 + ethanol) lower than 70 %. Two-phase transitions were observed, Vapor-Liquid Bubble Point (VL-BP), Vapor-Liquid Dew Point (VL-DP), and Liquid-Liquid (LL), and three-phase transitions Vapor-Liquid-Liquid (VLL). With the reduction of water in the GSE was possible to describe phase equilibrium behavior, but for both temperatures studied were put out transitions VL-DP. For the same system, the modeling was performed using Peng-Robinson equation which was able to correlate data with the use of two adjusted binary interaction parameters. Phase equilibrium data of GSE + CO2 +dichloromethane (DCM) system were determined where two-phase transitions VL-BP and VL-DP were observed. It was verified that the addition of GSE to the DCM solution in concentration up to 15 kg·m-3 did not affect the transition pressure of the binary system CO2 + DCM. The encapsulation was realized with percentage of encapsulation up to 72 % of GSE / Doutorado / Engenharia de Alimentos / Doutora em Engenharia de Alimentos