To examine the effect of acute beetroot juice supplementation on the rate of fatigue as measured by changes in peak torque. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, cross-over study, 35 recreationally active subjects consumed beetroot (BR) juice or black currant juice (PL) 12 and 2.5 hours before the exercise procedure. Peak torque was measured on the BIODEX dynamometer by performing 50, maximal effort, concentric knee extensions at 90°/s. Blood pressure (BP) was recorded before and after exercise. No significant difference between BR and PL in the rate of fatigue measured by change in peak torque. By stage 3, subjects retained 87.6±6.9% of strength with BR and 86.7±6.3% with PL (p= 0.363). Stages 10 was as follows: BR 47.9±12.6 vs. PL 46.9±12.9% (p= 0.419). The rate of work fatigue showed no significant differences. By stage 4, mean percent work fatigue showed 20.6±9% with BR and 21.8±10.1% with PL (p= 0.224). Stage 10 was as follows: BR 52.5±12.6% vs. PL 53.2±13% (p= 0.571). Post-exercise diastolic BP (BR: 67.2±9.8 vs. PL: 64.5±7.9mmHg, p= 0.039) and MAP (BR: 91.6±9.3 vs. PL: 88.8±8.2mmHg, p= 0.011) were higher with BR supplementation. Acute bouts of beetroot juice supplementation had no significant effect on knee extensor muscle fatigue measured during isokinetic contractions

In general, choking has been defined as the occurrence of sub-optimal performance under pressure (Baumeister and Showers, 1986). The most widely accepted theory of choking is what I have labeled the 'automatic execution model' (Baumeister, 1984), the basic premise being that choking occurs due to the inhibition of well-learned or automatic skills. The present dissertation was designed to test the automatic execution model in a sport context. Beyond this, I was interested in broadening the research paradigm by concentrating on choking as a process. The five inter-related studies contained in this dissertation tested predictors of choking, perceptions of pressure, coping processes, the automatic execution model, and gender differences. The general aim of this dissertation was to produce an integrated model of choking in sport. The five studies used to examine choking had a total of 89 competitive basketball players as participants (M = 20.01 years old, SD = 2.12). Sixty-four participants took part in studies, 1, 2, 3 and 5. The remaining 25 participants took part in study 4 only. All participants completed a series of basketball free throws in a low-pressure (LP) condition and a high-pressure (HP) condition. Pressure was manipulated by videotaping performance, using an audience, and offering financial incentives. In Study 1, dispositional self-consciousness (S-C) and trait anxiety (A-trait) were tested as potential predictors of choking. Participants (N = 66) completed the Self-Consciousness Scale (SCS; Fenigstein, Scheler, & Buss, 1975) and the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1990). A correlational analysis and a hierarchical multiple regression analysis supported the hypothesis that athletes high in S-C and somatic A-trait were susceptible to choking under pressure. In Study 2, the effects of manipulated pressure were examined for possible changes in perceived state anxiety (A-state) and subsequently performance. Participants (N = 64) completed the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Jones & Swain, 1992) prior to performing in the LP condition and the HP condition. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and a correlational analysis showed that participants experienced increased intensity of somatic and cognitive A-state in the HP condition, but the direction (facilitative/debilitative) of somatic A-state and cognitive A-state did not change significantly. Correlation analysis between A-state and performance under pressure was also not significant. In addition, a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed an absence of significant differences in performance between participants who had a negative A-state and participants who had a positive A-state. Study 3 was designed to examine the relationship between coping styles and choking susceptibility. Participants (N = 64) completed the Coping Style Inventory for Athletes (CSIA; Anshel & Kaissidis, 1997). As stated above participants also completed the CSAI-2 prior to performing in the LP and HP conditions. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses supported the hypothesis that approach coping strategies would result in heightened A-state and performance decrements under pressure. In Study 4, the automatic execution model was tested by investigating possible differences in the occurrence of choking as a function of task characteristics. Participants (N = 25) completed a running task (effort-dominant task) and a free throw shooting task (skill-dominant task) in a LP condition and a HP condition. As hypothesized, a series of t tests showed that the HP condition resulted in improved performance for the running task but decrements in performance for the free-throw shooting task. Study 5 was used to investigate potential gender differences in choking susceptibility. Participants (male = 46; female = 18) had already completed the SCS, SAS, CSIA, and CSAI-2. A one-way MANCOVA showed there were no gender differences in somatic and cognitive A-state changes from the LP condition to the HP condition. Furthermore, a one-way ANCOVA showed no gender differences in performance from the LP condition to the HP condition. In addition, a correlational analysis showed that S-C was more likely to affect performance for females and A-trait was more likely to affect performance for males. Based on the results of these five studies, previous choking research, and the theoretical choking framework, a proposed choking process model is presented and discussed. This proposed choking process model includes susceptibility factors, perception of pressure, coping process, task characteristics, and skill levels.

In modern industrialized countries coronary heart disease is the single most important cause of death and disability as well as the biggest cause of premature death. There are known global geographical variations in the incidence of coronary heart disease with currently the Eastern European countries having the highest mortality rates, Australia in the middle of the range and Spain, France and Japan having the lowest. Coronary heart disease still remains to be a leading cause of death in Australia, despite its decline in the past 25 years, which is mainly attributed to the improvements in medical management and to the lower prevalence of behaviours which increase the risk of heart disease. Australia is a multicultural society and a country where one person in five is born overseas thus, its national health profile is significantly determined by the health of its immigrants. It is evident from the literature that the mortality rate from CHD amongst immigrant groups in Australia is lower than that of the Australian-born. This is explained by the stringent selection processes involved in migration approvals where only healthy strong immigrants are selected to come to Australia. However, there is increasing incidence of coronary heart disease amongst migrant Australians. Some of the identified factors that may be influencing this increase are mainly those associated with the stress of migration and settlement, loss of status and socioeconomic disadvantage, limited access to health information as well as changes of life style which occur with increased acculturation as the duration of residence in Australia increases. This study was designed to examine the cardiovascular health profile, health knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and health behaviours, perceptions and barriers to behavioural change of an adult sample of a non-English speaking background community in Melbourne namely, the Australian-Lebanese. The health practices of this migrant group had never been studied and to date there is a paucity of literature regarding their health needs. This study provided information on the demographic and physical characteristics, life style factors, health and associated behaviours in relation to cardiovascular risk factors. The summary of findings below highlights a number of points of interest, and where possible comparisons were made with national figures derived from the 1989 National Heart Foundation Risk Factor Prevalence Study (NHF, 1990). The main findings were: Blood pressure and hypertension: The proportion of men and women who were hypertensive in this study increased steadily with age. 12.5% men and 7% of the women were found to have a diastolic blood pressure above 95mmHg. This is higher than the national figures of the 1989 NHFRFPS that were 11% of Australian men and 5% of Australian women had a diastolic blood pressure above 95 mmHg. High blood cholesterol: The proportion of men and women who had high blood cholesterol levels increased steadily with age. 8% of the men and 10% of the women reported having blood cholesterol levels greater than 6.5mmol/L. This is lower than the 1989 national figures where 16% of the men and 14% of the women had cholesterol levels greater than 6.5mmol/L (NHF, 1990). Smoking behaviour: 44% of the Australian-Lebanese men and 25% of Australia- Lebanese women in this study were smokers compared with 24% of men and 21% of women of the 1989 NHFRFPS (NHF, 1990). All the Australian-Lebanese women smokers were in the middle and younger age groups (less than 44 years). Exercise for recreation sport or health fitness: Lack of exercise for recreation was prevalent among the Australian-Lebanese, about 55% of the men and 47% of the women had no exercise of any kind during leisure time in the preceding fortnight, as compared with 27% of Australian men and women according to the national figures (NHF, 1990). Overweight and obesity: Overweight and obesity were prevalent among the Australian-Lebanese. 71% of the men and 67% of the women were found to be either overweight or obese. This ratio is much higher than the national figures (NHF, 1990) with 60% of the men and 50% of the women being overweight or obese. The prevalence of overweight and obesity in this study increased with age for both sexes. 48% of the total Australian-Lebanese sample were overweight and 24% were obese. 41% of men and 38% of women were overweight and 21% of men and 37% of women were obese. Alcohol intake: Drinking alcohol was not a major risk factor among the Australian- Lebanese sample since most were occasional drinkers. 43% of men and 77% of women said they never drank any alcoholic beverages. This is quite a low ratio compared with the national figures where 87% of the men and 75% of the women drank alcohol. Dietary behaviour: 96% of men and 90% of women did not follow any kind of special diet. A fat-modified diet to lower blood fat was followed by one man and 3 women. One man and one woman reported following a diabetic diet. Five women followed a weight-reduction diet. 61% of men and 68% of women rarely ate fat on meat. 80% of men and 86% of women rarely added salt to cooked food compared to 49% of Australian men and 58% of Australian women who rarely or never added salt to their food (NHF, 1990). Major risk factors: A multiple forward logistic regression was conducted to assess which demographic factors predicted having a major risk factor or not. The strongest predictor was gender, with males more likely to have a major risk factor. The second strongest predictor was age with those in the older age group (45-69 years) being more likely to have a major risk factor and the next strongest predictor was education with those who have no formal education or primary school education only, being more likely to have a major risk factor. These cross-sectional observations provide the basis for interventional-type studies and should lead to appropriate recommendations regarding health promotion and education programs that can contribute to reducing the risks of cardiovascular disease in this non-English speaking background community.

Bone loss often leads to osteoporosis. This is a disease characterised by low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue, leading to enhanced bone fragility and a consequent increase in fracture risk. Osteoporosis is a complicated syndrome whose treatment and prevention crosses many disciplinary boundaries: therefore it is multidisciplinary. The best form of treatment is prevention. Osteoporosis can be limited through the maximization and maintenance of bone strength and minimization of trauma. The purpose of this study was to consider the effects of: physical activity in the form of Tai Ji (Tai Chi), acupuncture and Chinese herbal medicine on bone loss by evaluating bone structure and function in menopausal women. The effects of these modalities were objectively examined through changes in bone material properties and the biomarkers of bone metabolism. Broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA), a measure of bone structure and density, velocity of sound (VOS), an indicater of the elastic modulus and the breaking forces of bone as provided by ultrasound parameters, were evaluated. The levels of osteocalcin (OSTN) in serum, a biomarker of bone formation and the levels of pyridinoline (PYR) and doxypyridinoline (D-PYR) in urine, which are bone resorption markers were evaluated as parameters of bone metabolism. Traditional Chinese Medicine diagnosis was also used to measure changes in participants' symptoms resulting from Tai Ji exercise, acupuncture and herbal treatment. During an eight month paired cross-over study the effects of three traditional Chinese therapeutic strategies (as described above) on bone structure and function to prevent bone loss were evaluated. Menopausal women are considered one of the most at risk groups for bone loss. Forty menopausal women who completed treatment and testing were divided into three sub groups; 12 into the Tai Ji exercise group, 14 into the acupuncture treatment group and 14 into the herbal treatment group. The groups were then further divided into treatment and control groups. The sub-group for each treatment underwent a four month regime while the control group maintained a normal lifestyle. At the end of the fourth month the groups changed roles with the control group undergoing treatment while the former treatment group reverted to a normal lifestyle. Relevant tests were carried out at the beginning of the study, at the end of the 4th month and at the end of the study (at the end of the 8th month). Subjects in the Tai Ji group completed thirty-two one hour sessions of Beijing 24- movements Tai Ji over sixteen weeks. These movements are designed to gather qi, focus the mind, relax the body, move qi and blood, exercise the muscles, joints and lumbar region. The set of movements improve the balance function of the body and strengthen the muscles and sinews. The results of this study indicated that Tai Ji improved bone structure and increased bone density in menopausal women. There was a 7.3% increase in BUA (p=0.001) when comparing the test results of Groups A+B pre and post Tai Ji exercise. The increased BUA appears to be associated with 39.0% increased bone formation (p=0.001) rather than decreased bone resorption (p > 0.05). Tai Ji exercises also relieved symptoms related to bone loss. It appears that Tai Ji exercise may not only improve balance and confidence in the elderly but also could contribute to improved bone function and structure. The subjects who received acupuncture therapy were assessed according to the principles of traditional Chinese Medicine. Three main acupuncture points in the lower legs, KID 3, SP 6 and ST 36 were used in accordance with the common pattern of disharmony for each of the fourteen participants. Each of the subjects was treated 32 times by the researcher, twice a week for 16 weeks, the duration of each treatment was 30 minutes. The treatment involved the use of points on meridians that tonify and nourish the body. The use of specific acupuncture points on the kidney, stomach and spleen meridians meant that their related organs were tonified, nourished and regulated. Acupuncture of points KID 3, SP 6 and ST 36 tended to increase BUA 8.8% (p=0.005) when comparing the test results of Groups A+B pre and post treatment. The balance between bone formation and resorption improved, OSTN increased 30.9% (p=0.006) which indicates an improvement in bone formation, D-PYR was reduced by 18.5% (p=0.002) indicating a decrease in bone absorption, when comparing the test results of Groups A+B pre and post acupuncture treatment. Acupuncture can also strengthen kidney as evidenced by the relief of symptoms reported in this study. The participants who received traditional Chinese herbal therapy were assessed according to the principle of Traditional Chinese Medicine. 'Shu Di Shan Zha formula' was selected for the treatment group in accordance with the common pattern of disharmony. The decoction (granules mixed with water) was taken twice per day over a period of four months to strengthen the kidney and nourish yin. Chinese medical herbal therapy ' Shu Di Shan Zha formula was able to affect the level of BUA (6.9% increase for Groups A+B pre and post treatment, p=0.03) and a reduction in the level of D-PYR (16.5% decrease for Groups A+B pre and post treatment, p=0.011) in menopausal women as well as ameliorating menopausal symptoms in most of the subjects. However the mechanism of herbal therapy on bone turn-over warrants further study. Broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) was higher after the treatment with these three different strategies. Increased levels of osteocalcin (OSTN) in serum and the decreased levels of pyridinoline (PYR) and doxypyridinoline (D-PYR) in the urine were all noted after the treatments and might explain the increased BUA. Results of dual energy X-ray absorbtiometry (DEXA) in the same subjects had a moderate correlation with the BUA readings (r=0.50). BUA is considered a valuable measure of bone structure and density. The study suggests that the three modalities relieve menopausal and bone loss related symptoms. The results imply that the three traditional Chinese therapeutic strategies might delay the occurrence of bone loss by improving the balance of bone turn over and general health in menopausal women.

The aim of the study was to examine the effects of a long-term endurance-training on resting and exercising cardiac responses on male adolescents. The sample consisted of 13 endurance-trained and 7 non-athletic male adolescents (x +\- SE, age = 15.33 +/- 0.33 and 15.15 +/- 0.23 years, respectively). The volunteers underwent echocardiography at rest to determine left ventricular end diastole dimension (LVDd) and end systole dimension (LVDs), left ventricular posterior wall (PW), stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO). On separate days, tests were conducted on a cycle ergometer to measure VO2max and anaerobic power, and skeletal muscle strength and endurance was determined on an isokinetic dynamometer. The relative peak oxygen uptake (VO2max ml/kg/min) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the endurance group (54.4 +/- 1.8) than the control group (45.8 +/- 1.6). The mean trial time was significantly longer in the endurance group (12.9 +/- 0.7 minutes) than the control (10.4 +/- 0.8 minutes; p < 0.05) and there was a significant relationship (r= 0.51; p < 0.05) between the length of test and peak oxygen uptake. No significant differences were noted between the two group in rest heart rate, peak heart rate, LVDd, LVDd/BSA, LVDs, LVDs/BSA, PW, PW/BSA, stroke volume (SV), SV indexed, cardiac output (CO) and CO indexed. The data indicate that endurance-trained male adolescents had higher value of maximal oxygen uptake than untrained male adolescents. The improvements in maximal oxygen uptake were associated with longer exercise time. Endurance-trained adolescents did not exhibit greater left ventricular internal dimension, left ventricular wall thickness, SV and CO at rest compared to the untrained. This observation suggests that endurance training stimulus need to be of greater intensity, duration and frequency in adolescent. In addition, the control group may have been engaged in sufficient exercise as to blur any differences that otherwise may have occurred. Furthermore, genetic factors may be more important in determining cardiovascular development and performance in adolescents, than was previously thought.

Research providing insight into how coaches behave has mainly been sourced from an athlete perspective or from observing and recording coach behaviour in context. Only a few studies have recognized the views of the expert coach as a potentially valuable source of information. Yet only coaches can provide insight into their histories, learning, goals, beliefs, knowledge, and decision making, and decode the complex interactions that occur in the dynamic context of coaching. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate how elite-level coaches developed and used expertise. Twenty successful coaches working with Australian junior, elite sport participants were purposefully sampled to cover a diversity of sports (team and individual) and to provide a gender balance.

This thesis adds a new dimension to the analyses of the sport media nexus by examining the scope of the roles the media adopt during a crisis event in sport. Specifically, this thesis explores the ways in which the print media represents crisis events in sport, how the representation of crisis events is influenced by the organisational and commercial context and the extent to which this representation evolves over time. The thesis is comprised of three case studies: the debate over the South Melbourne Football Club's relocation to Sydney in 1981; the Footscray Fightback campaign to save the Footscray Football Club in 1989; and the Fitzroy Football Club's merger with the Brisbane Football Club in 1996. In each instance the case study is analysed using a theoretical framework of analysis, developed from the literature. As a result of the analyses, a new theoretical framework of analysis for the print media representation of context specific crisis events in sport is proposed.

In this thesis, I investigated aspects of the multi-component stress and injury model, which Williams and Andersen (1998) suggested could be applied in areas beyond sport. Two studies (Studies 1 and 2) were carried out with the goal to develop interventions, which were tested for their efficacy in the reduction of injuries, in a third study (Study 3). The purpose of Study 1 was to investigate whether psychosocial factors, such as stress, anxiety, social support, and coping skills, could predict injuries (frequency and duration) among 105 ballet dancers (101 females; 4 males), using a regression design. The dancers were professional ballet dancers (n = 27), university ballet students (n = 19), and ballet institute students (n = 59), with a mean age of 20.46 years (SD = 5.50). They completed a modified version of the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale (APES) and Sport Experiences Survey (SES), which address life and dance stress respectively, the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS), the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI-28), and a social support for dance measure. Frequency and duration of injuries were recorded for a 10-month period after completion of the psychosocial measures. From the correlation matrix of psychosocial scales and injury, I selected for regression analysis variables that showed at least moderate correlations with the frequency and duration of injury (i.e., peaking under pressure, goal setting/mental preparation, freedom from worry, confidence, negative dance stress, negative life stress). One regression analysis identified freedom from worry and confidence as significant predictors for frequency of injury. A second regression analysis identified freedom from worry and negative dance stress as significant predictors for duration of injury. In Study 2, I examined the sources of stress and coping strategies of Korean professional ballet dancers, using in-depth interviews. Dancers (N = 20) were interviewed to identify the stressors they experienced and the coping strategies they used during practice or performance. Using inductive content analysis, I identified four major sources of stress that emerged from the data: physical (i.e., physical appearance, poor physical condition), psychological (i.e., desire, slump, personality), social (i.e., relationship with a dance director and other dancers), and situational factors (i.e., performance demands, finance). The results demonstrated that physical appearance (e.g., maintaining particular body type, keeping low body weight) was a preeminent problem. I also found that three general dimensions for coping were psychological strategies (i.e., individual cognitive and emotional strategies, avoidance strategies), behavioural strategies (i.e., dysfunctional behaviour, hobby activities, social interaction, dance related behaviour), and physical relaxation. The coping strategies mentioned most frequently in this study belonged to the behavioural strategies dimension. In particular, the dancers employed dysfunctional behaviour (e.g., overeating, drinking alcohol) to cope with stress. Identification of sources of stress and coping strategies not only help to identify the specific stressors and coping skills surrounding dance environments, but also provide a basis for designing intervention programs, which may help reduce stress through developing coping skills. The purpose of Study 3, the final study, was to examine the effects of two psychological interventions designed to prevent injury among dancers by enhancing coping skills. Participants were 35 ballet dancers. They were assigned to three conditions, control (n = 12), autogenic training (n = 12), and a broad-based coping skills condition, including autogenic training, imagery, and self-talk (n = 11). The 12-week interventions were designed on the basis of quantitative and qualitative results from the previous studies in the thesis. For weeks 13 to 24, participants were asked to practice their respective intervention three times a week. During the 24-week period (12 weeks training plus 12 weeks practice) training staff at the dance academies recorded injuries on a record sheet each day. Participants wrote injury records by themselves for another 24 weeks. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and univariate tests for each dependent variable showed that the broad-based coping skills condition enhanced coping skills, in particular: peaking under pressure, coping with adversity, confidence and achievement motivation, and concentration. Separate analyses of covariance (ANCOVA), one using pre-intervention injury frequency as the covariate and one using pre-intervention injury duration as the covariate revealed that dancers in the broad-based coping skills condition spent less time injured than those in the control condition. Overall, results indicated that the broad-based coping skills intervention was effective for enhancing targeted coping skills and reducing injury occurrence among Korean ballet dancers, supporting Williams and Andersen’s (1998) model of stress and injury. Because the broad-based coping skills was an intervention designed for particular Korean ballet dancers, based on quantitative and qualitative research, this intervention program may not be applicable to Western dancers. For future research, I recommend the approach I employed in this thesis, as the basis for designing effective and efficient interventions for dancers.

The purpose of this research project was to provide an in-depth account of elite athletes' experiences of, and experts' perspectives on, overtraining and its negative outcomes. I conducted interviews with athletes and sports experts, including coaches, sport doctors, scientists, and psychologists across a variety of sports. The interviews were focussed on identifying personal and situational risk factors for overtraining behaviours and outcomes. This thesis includes discussions of the responses to the interviews from the athletes' and the experts' perspectives, with distinct approaches to analysing and presenting the interview data from these two groups' different perspectives. For the 14 experts, I carried out inductive content analyses of the interviews and presented the results in a tree-structure showing the major categories, subcategories, and raw data themes emerging from the data. For the 13 athletes, I used a narrative approach to analysing and presenting their stories, which I aggregated into three core tales, represented by three constructed fictional athletes. From the athletes' stories, I found support for the perspectives presented by the experts. I also uncovered, however, unique accounts of overtraining experiences that provided insight into the intra-psychic conflicts, sometimes obsessive-compulsive features, and complicated relationships of the not-as-perfect-as-perceived-to-be athletes. Taken together, both sets of interviews revealed that overtraining behaviours are significant issues in most sports, whether skill- or effort-based, which may go against traditional conceptions of overtraining. In the general discussion, I present a descriptive model of overtraining risks and outcomes, which came together from the synthesis of the athlete and expert interview results, and, finally, I discuss implications for professional practice and make suggestions for future research.

Endurance athletes may use hypoxic exposure, and high intensity interval training to improve subsequent endurance performance. Research on the physiological adaptation of athletes to these interventions has tended to focus on metabolic, haematological and respiratory measures. Consequently, relatively little is known, in well-trained athletes, about the effects of chronic intermittent hypoxia, acute and chronic exercise on skeletal muscle Na+,K+ATPase, buffering capacity and plasma electrolytes. Thus the effects of acute exercise and these interventions in well-trained athletes are the focus of this thesis.