This laboratory has shown that exercise in humans impairs skeletal muscle Na+,K+-ATPase maximal in vitro activity, whilst in isolated rat muscles, Na+,K+-ATPase inhibition with ouabain leads to early muscle fatigue. Hence, Na+,K+-ATPase function is likely to be important for skeletal muscle performance. Digoxin is a specific inhibitor of the Na+,K+- ATPase and is used to treat patients with severe heart failure. This thesis investigated whether in-vivo inhibition of Na+,K+-ATPase by digoxin adversely effected muscle performance and Na+,K+-ATPase isoform expression and protein abundance in skeletal muscle of healthy individuals. Ten active, but not well-trained healthy volunteers (9 M, 1 F) gave written informed consent. Subjects performed incremental cycle ergometer exercise to measure VO2peak and to determine 33, 67 and 90% VO2peak workrates. Exercise tests were performed after taking digoxin (DIG, 0.25 mg.d-1) or a placebo (CON) for 13 day (Cybex) or 14 day (cycling), in a randomised, counterbalanced, cross-over, double-blind design, with trials separated by at least 6 weeks. On day 13 subjects performed tests of quadriceps muscle strength and endurance of the dominant leg, on a Cybex isokinetic dynamometer ( Cybex Norm 770, Henley Healthcare, USA). On day 14 subjects completed 10 min cycling at each of 33% and 67% VO2peak, then to fatigue at 90% VO2peak on cycle ergometer (Lode Excalibur, Groningen, the Netherlands), with arterial blood sampling for plasma [K+] determinations. A muscle biopsy was taken at rest, after exercise at 67% and 90%VO2peak and at 3 hr recovery. Muscle was analysed for Na+, K+-pump isoform (alpha1-alpha3, beta1-beta3) mRNA expression (real-time RT-PCR, GeneAmp 7500 Sequence Detection System) and whole homogenate protein abundance (immunoblotting, Kodak Digital Science Image Station 400CF, Eastman Kodak Company, CT, USA). Serum digoxin was 0.7±0.1 nM at day 13 and 0.8±0.1 nM at day 14 (Mean±SEM) and was less than the lowest detection limit of 0.4 nM in control trials. There were no differences in VO2 or time to fatigue (DIG 262±156 vs CON 254 ±125 s) between DIG and CON during exercise. Arterial plasma [K+] increased above rest at 67% VO2peak and increased further at fatigue (P<0.05). No significant differences were found in [K+] between DIG and CON. Peak torque during dynamic isokinetic contractions was less at each increasing velocity (P<0.05). No differences were found in muscle strength between DIG and CON. Similarly, there were no differences in the leg extensor fatigue index between trials (DIG 0.54±0.03 vs CON 0.57±0.03). The mRNA expression of the alpha1, alpha2, alpha3, beta1, beta1 or beta3 isoforms was not significantly changed by DIG. However, DIG increased the total alpha mRNA expression (sum of alpha1, alpha2, alpha3) and also the total beta mRNA expression (sum of beta1, beta2 and beta3) at rest by 1.9- and 0.6-fold, respectively (P<0.05). An exercise effect was observed for alpha3 mRNA expression, which was 2.1-and 2.4-fold higher at 3 h post-exercise, than during exercise at 67% VO2peak and fatigue, respectively (P<0.05). Similarly, beta3 mRNA expression was increased at 3 h post-exercise by 1.8-, 1.4- and 1.6-fold, compared to rest, 67% VO2peak exercise and fatigue, respectively (P<0.05). No other significant changes with exercise or recovery were seen in mRNA expression. In resting muscle, protein relative abundance was not significantly changed by digoxin for alpha1 (1.14±0.19, P=0.50), alpha3 (1.12±0.18, P=0.52), beta1 (1.19±0.18, P=0.32), beta2 (1.86±0.57, P=0.17), beta3 (0.85±0.17, P=0.39) compared to control (1.00) although a tendency was observed for an increase in alpha2 with DIG (1.44±0.23, P=0.096). However, exercise affected both beta1 and beta3 isoform protein abundance. The beta1 protein abundance was increased at 3 h post-exercise by 2.2-and 1.5-fold compared to during exercise at 67% VO2peak and fatigue, respectively (P<0.05). Similarly, beta3 protein abundance was increased at 67% VO2peak and 3 h post-exercise compared to rest, by 1.5-and 1.6-fold, respectively (P<0.05). In summary, despite elevation of serum digoxin to therapeutic levels, quadriceps muscle strength, muscle fatiguability and arterial plasma [K+] were each unchanged by DIG. Furthermore, digoxin treatment had only minimal effects on skeletal muscle Na+,K+- ATPase isoform mRNA expression and protein abundance in healthy individuals. Nonetheless Na+,K+-ATPase alpha subunit and beta subunit total mRNA expression in resting muscle was increased with digoxin, suggesting an effect of digoxin on Na+,K+-ATPase gene expression. Whilst no significant change was detected in protein abundance of any isoform with digoxin in resting muscle, a tendency forwards an increase in alpha2 protein abundance was observed (P=0.096). Together these suggest a possible compensatory upregulation with digoxin in muscle Na+,K+-ATPase in these healthy individuals.

This thesis is about Middendorf breathwork, a way of cultivating breath and body awareness developed by Ilse Middendorf (b.1910, Berlin), based on sensing subtle bodily movements that occur with breath as it is allowed to come and go on its own. Drawing on the author’s personal experience, together with interviews and formal workshops with peer participants, the thesis describes the practice of Middendorf breathwork, traces Middendorf’s forebears and contemporaries, situating her work in relation to other somatic bodies of work, and discusses the significance of Middendorf breathwork in relation to contemporary discourses around breath, embodiment, and experience. The author proposes that the practice of Middendorf breathwork invites a different experience of embodiment through an integration of the kinæsthetic realm with thought, emotion, and intuition through breath. This practice can connect the individual with the somatic ‘intelligence’ of their body and offer an experience of how this links them in to a greater whole. Such an experience, it is argued, is a valuable redress to experiences of bodily abstraction in an increasingly technoscientific world.

The importance of regular and life long physical activity, both from a physical and medical perspective and from a psychological well-being perspective, is well documented. Also well documented is the reduction, below sufficient levels, in physical activity participation, particularly for populations such as young and mid-life adult women. Physical activity promotion is, thus, of great importance in modern society. In this thesis, my primary aim is to develop ways to enhance the adoption and maintenance of physical activity in young and midlife women. To do so, I have utilised the theoretical conceptions from a dominant social cognitive model, the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985). Subjective norm has not been a strong predictor of intention or behaviour in research on the theory of planned behavior in physical activity contexts (Symons Downs & Hausenblas, 2005), the reasons for which have been the subject of much debate in the literature. To date, there is disagreement about the conceptualization, measurement, and importance of the variable. In this thesis, I examined the potential of the social identity approach as a basis for making subjective norm more meaningful. In this approach, rather than assessing the influence of a random collection of important others as in the original definition (Ajzen, 1985), subjective norm is conceptualised as the perceived pressure from specific reference groups relevant to self, a conceptualization more in keeping with the social identity approach (Terry & Hogg 1996). I expected that the social identity approach to subjective norms would enhance its ability to predict intentions and be the basis of an effective physical activity intervention. Specifically, I expected that physical activity norms, when presented to women from members of a shared social identity would influence both intentions and behaviour. In the first study, I surveyed 214 women between the ages of 25 and 45 to obtain a list of the potential reference groups that would be relevant for young and midlife women. I asked women to list their self-characteristics and then to rate them on Simon’s (1997) social self-categorisation index. I sorted the self-characteristics into types, and listed the frequency and social identity potential for each type. From the most frequently listed self-characteristic types, I found that the personality-based selfcharacteristics, such as strong independent woman, and spiritual caring woman, had more social identity potential, than the role-based self-characteristics, such as wife or professional. I used these personality-based self-characteristics as the basis for my intervention study. In the second study, I conducted a 3-month physical activity study based on the social identity approach to subjective norm. The intervention was for sedentary women (25 to 45 years), who engaged in less than 150 minutes of exercise per week. In two social identity conditions (SI), I conducted a social identity-based subjective norm manipulation. The first SI condition was for women (n = 26) who identified as strong independent women. The second SI condition was for women (n = 17) who identified as spiritual caring women. In these SI conditions, I made salient the relevant identity, and then provided them with video taped normative support for physical activity from similar women (ingroup). In the personal identity (PI) condition (n =21), I asked women to focus on their individuality and provided them with video-taped information about the importance of physical activity presented by health professionals. Women in all conditions completed physical activity questionnaires preintervention, 2-weeks post-intervention, and questionnaires 3-months later to followup. TPB variables were measured as well group norm (re-conceptualised subjective norm). At the 2-week post-test, I found that women from all conditions increased their level of physical activity and there was no difference between the conditions. At the 3- month post-test, however, only the women in the SI conditions maintained their increased level of physical activity. The physical activity levels for women in the PI condition dropped back to pre-intervention levels. These results indicate that subjective norm-based physical activity interventions can be successful in enabling women’s adoption and maintenance of physical activity, more so, than interventions focused on women’s personal identities. Regression analyses in the second study, conducted to examine the TPB provided some support for the social identity-based approach to subjective norm because subjective norm was shown to be a significant predictor of intention for the SI conditions, but not for the PI condition. In the PI condition, only perceived behavioural control predicted intention. These results indicate that norms can be significant predictors of intention, but only in contexts in which women’s social, rather than personal, identities are salient. Contrary to the theory of planned behavior, however, intention did not predict physical activity in either the PI or SI conditions, indicating that action is not influenced by good intentions alone. Before considering the impact of methodological issues on the findings, I investigated the other factors that were operating in the SI conditions, which could explain the increased and maintained physical activity in the absence of an intention-based explanation. This investigation led me to conclude that the social identity approach to subjective norm I used in the SI intervention conditions created the foundation for automatic goal activation based on auto-motive theory (Bargh, 1990), in which the women were able to bypass the more effortful, intentional route in order to execute their physical activity goals. Much future research is, nevertheless, needed to substantiate this conclusion. In the final study, I conducted focus group discussions about the 3-month physical activity study with 38 women from both the PI and SI intervention conditions. The aim of this study was to provide some evidence for the theoretical explanations I made when discussing the lack of an intention – behaviour relationship in my intervention study. I found some evidence that goals were activated automatically in the SI conditions but not the PI condition, and thus, provided some support for automotive theory, but more controlled experimental research is needed to further substantiate the argument. Overall this thesis shows that a physical activity intervention based on the social, rather than personal, level of self is more effective in enhancing both adoption and maintenance of physical activity for young and midlife women. At this social level of self, I found that subjective norm has more of an influence on intention than the personal variables of attitude and perceived behavioural control, but, for young and midlife women, intention is not a strong predictor of behaviour. This means that enhancing the intentions of young and midlife women to exercise may not be enough to influence their exercise behaviour and that other theoretical approaches should be considered. My research shows that an understanding of the social identity approach and auto-motive theory may enable the development of useful strategies to enhance women’s abilities to convert their intentions into action.

Falls in older adults has long been recognised as a significant public health problem requiring urgent intervention. Tripping while walking is one of the most commonly cited reasons for falls, however, little research has focused so far on foot motion characteristics and their contribution to the likelihood of tripping while walking. Even fewer studies have examined tripping on unseen obstacles while obstacle negotiation (i.e. tripping on seen obstacles) has received more attention. The primary aim of this research was to examine foot motion during long-term (e.g., 30 minutes) continuous treadmill walking by measuring minimum toe clearance (MTC), the very small distance the foot clears the ground during swing phase of gait. Examining MTC of each stride allowed an estimation of the likelihood of an individual tripping on unseen obstacles while walking. Since cognitive decline and reduced ability to multitask (reduced divided attention capacity) has been observed in older adults and has been linked to falls risk, this research also examines foot kinematics during distracted walking conditions. Foot motion was analysed during undistracted and distracted walking using various short (turning the head to identify objects to the left and then the right; reacting to a visual stimulus by pressing a hand-held button; reaching into a waist pouch to retrieve a handkerchief; and a cough) and prolonged distractions (counting backwards by threes; and watching a video) that could be encountered in normal everyday life. This enabled an evaluation of the types of distractions and situations that might increase the risk of tripping in healthy elderly females. This research, therefore: (1) focused on healthy elderly females (n = 18, mean age 71.3 years, SD = 3.6 years) and healthy young females (n = 18, mean age 21.8 years, SD = 3.6 years); (2) utilised a 2D model of the foot to using shoe dimension to calculate MTC at midswing; (3) calculated probability of tripping for each subject based on individual MTC distributions; and (4) examined MTC descriptive statistics during undistracted walking at a self-selected comfortable walking speed on the treadmill for ~20 minutes and during various everyday distractions (short and prolonged) for 10 minutes. Descriptive statistics of individual MTC distributions, which included between 906 to 1253 strides per subject, were examined. For undistracted walking, the elderly adults had lower measures of all variables in the lower end of the MTC distribution, namely minimum (minMTC) (1.08cm vs. 1.42cm, p<.05), first percentile (PC1MTC) (1.35cm vs. 1.68cm, p<.05), fifth percentile (PC5MTC) (1.50cm vs. 1.81cm, p<.05), and first quartile (Q1MTC) (1.80cm vs. 2.00cm, p<.05). The higher skewness of MTC distributions (0.60 vs. 0.33, p<.05) in the elderly, however, suggests some attempt was made to reduce the frequency of MTC in the lower portion of the distribution. It was discovered that an individual’s calculated frequency of tripping was approximately once every second stride when MTC was approximately equal to the individual’s MTC distribution central tendency (median). Elderly subjects had greater calculated probability of tripping (PT) between MTC(y) = 0.9cm – 2.0cm (p<.05). The elderly also had higher intra-individual variability in MTC as measured by interquartile range (IQRMTC) (0.44cm vs. 0.28cm, p<.01). For normal undistracted walking, the elderly are at an increased risk of tripping on unseen obstacles given the smaller MTC and greater variability in MTC. For the distracted walking conditions, the elderly had significantly lower medianMTC compared with the young for most distraction tasks (p<.05). The elderly also typically had lower minMTC and higher IQRMTC compared with the young. The lower MTC and higher intra-individual variability due to distractions places the elderly at an increased risk of tripping on small unseen obstacles compared with the young. The distraction eliciting the smallest MTC was a prolonged task (60 seconds) and involved structural interference where vision was focused on the task as well as maintaining posture and balance (video task). Distractions such as observing the scenery while walking therefore could increase the likelihood of tripping. The largest MTC was during the head turn task, where subjects turned the head to identify objects to the left and right. This large MTC could have been an attempt to reduce the likelihood of tripping.

In skeletal muscle, the Na+,K+-ATPase enzyme regulates trans-membrane Na+ and K+ fluxes during contractions, and therefore also affects muscle excitability and plays an important role in delaying muscle fatigue. Consequently, any modulation of Na+,K+-ATPase content or activity has the potential to affect muscle fatiguability. Thus, this thesis investigated three factors thought to impair or down-regulate the skeletal muscle Na+,K+-ATPase – acute exercise, renal disease and digoxin. The related effects on plasma [K+] during exercise and on muscle performance were also examined. This thesis firstly investigated the acute effects of brief intense exercise on muscle Na+,K+-ATPase content and maximal activity (Study 1). Study 2 investigated the effects of end-stage renal disease on plasma [K+] regulation during exercise; examined the relationship between impaired [K+] regulation and muscle performance, and investigated the effects of endurance training in these patients. Study 3 investigated the impacts of end-stage renal disease and renal transplantation on skeletal muscle Na+,K+-ATPase and its relationship with muscle performance. Finally, Study 4 investigated the effects of chronic digoxin administration on skeletal muscle Na+,K+-ATPase content and maximal activity and on muscle performance in healthy humans.

In this thesis, I investigated the influence of personality and situational variables on the experience of flow in order to enhance flow state in tennis competition. Based on propositions of the sport-specific flow model (Kimiecik & Stein, 1992), I conducted three interconnected studies. In Study 1, I examined the relationship between personality variables and flow. In Study 2, I tested the effect of the interaction between two key personality variables, trait sport confidence and action control, and key situational variables, self- and externally-paced tasks, on flow state and performance. Finally, in Study 3, I investigated the efficacy of an imagery intervention designed to enhance confidence and action control to increase flow state and self-paced and externally-paced performance in tennis competitions. The purpose of Study 1 was to investigate the influence of personality variables on dispositional flow and state flow in junior tennis players. I entered personality variables, which demonstrated moderate correlations with flow, into regression equations. Except for the Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS), I entered the Action Control Scale-Sport (ACS-S), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI) as predictor variables into stepwise multiple regression analyses with the Dispositional Flow Scale-2 (DFS- 2; N = 271) and the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2; N = 134), respectively, as criterion variables. The results showed that trait sport confidence was the strongest predictor of dispositional flow, accounting for 32.83% of the variance, and action control was the strongest predictor of state flow, explaining 15.52% of the iii variance. On a DFS-2 subscale level, confidence was the main predictor for challenge-skills balance and sense of control, whereas imagery use was the main predictor for clear goals, unambiguous feedback, concentration on the task at hand, and autotelic experience. In the FSS-2 regression analyses, action control was the strongest predictor for most of the entered criterion variables of state flow subscales, namely clear goals, unambiguous feedback, and sense of control. The purpose of Study 2 was to test the Kimiecik and Stein’s (1992) hypothesis that person and situation factors interplay in the generation of flow state. Based on the findings in the previous study, I chose examine interaction and main effects between two key personality characteristics, namely trait sport confidence and action control, and situational variables, such as a self-paced service task and an externally-paced groundstroke task, on flow state and performance in tennis. Following service and groundstroke performance, the participants, junior tennis players (N = 60) between 12 to 18 years, completed the FSS-2. Based on a median split on the TSCI, I assigned participants to groups of high or low confidence. I carried out a two-way repeated-measures ANOVA on flow state with high and low confidence as levels of the independent group factor and self-paced and externally-paced tasks as levels of the repeated measures factor. The results showed a significant main effect between groups of high and low confidence and flow, F(1, 58) = 6.82, p < .05, ç² = .11. The interaction for flow state was not significant, but revealed a moderate effect size, F(1, 58) = 2.64, ns, ç² = .04. I carried out similar ANOVAs on performance showing a significant main effect for performance. Participants demonstrated a greater accuracy in the groundstroke task than in the service task, showing a large effect size, F(1, 58) = 12.74, p < .001, ç² = .18. Analyses of interaction effects between high and low confidence and self- and externally-paced tasks on performance outcome showed a moderate effect size, but was not significant, F(1, 58) = 2.97, ns, ç² = .05. Following the same procedure for action control, I used a median split to divide participants into groups of action orientation and state orientation. There were no significant main or interaction effects between action- and state-oriented groups and flow. With regard to performance, a significant main effect was found for task type, with participants scoring higher on the groundstroke than the service task, and performance outcome, F(1, 58) = 12.13, p < .001, ç² = .17, indicating a large effect size. The purpose of Study 3 was to examine the effect of an imagery intervention on flow state and performance in tennis competition. The study included an A-B design with a baseline and post-intervention phase to evaluate the efficacy of imagery, using a standardised imagery script. I measured flow state and performance over a range of official ranking-list tournaments. I developed the imagery script based on findings of Study 1, taking into account correlational results between personality variables of action control, imagery use, and trait sport confidence and dimensions of flow. The script consisted of three parts, starting with a relaxation component, then imagery on self-paced performance of first and second serves, and, finally, imagery in externally-paced performance situations, including forehand and backhand groundstrokes. For the intervention, four male junior tennis players between 13 and 15 years of age worked with the imagery script three times a week for four consecutive weeks. Participants were of an advanced skill level, being ranked between 203 and 244 in the Australian Junior Ranking List at the beginning of the study. After the four-week intervention phase, all participants demonstrated an increase in service and groundstroke performance winners. In addition, participants increased their ranking-list position from beginning to end of the study between 24 and 145 positions. Visual inspection of the data revealed that three participants increased in state flow intensity across phases. In a social validation interview, which I conducted at the end of the study, three participants confirmed an increase in flow and confidence level after the intervention. Overall, results confirmed several propositions of Kimiecik and Stein’s (1992) sport-specific flow model. Firstly, dispositional personality variables, action control, imagery use, and trait sport confidence demonstrated a moderate relationship with flow. Secondly, significant and near-significant main and interaction effects were evident between situational and personal variables on the experience of flow state. Thirdly, an imagery intervention showed an increase in flow and performance. With regard to future research, I recommend the use of the flow model, as proposed by Kimiecik and Stein (1992), to further assess the influence of personality and situation characteristics and their interaction on flow. In addition, more studies on the flow-performance relationship would be fruitful to enhance theoretical understanding and to inform applied work.

To maintain consistently low riding-eights, many jockeys engage in repetitive cycles of rapid, short-term weight loss, termed "wasting". The physical and psychological effects of "wasting" are not well understood, although several recent studies suggest that, at least in the short-term, they may be numerous, and with any one of them having a potentially detrimental effect on both the health and riding performance of jockeys. The major aims of the research reported were to investigate the weight-management experiences of jockeys in Australia, and to examine a range of cognitive and other psychological effects of rapid weight loss in this professional athlete population. The methodological framework used to address these aims incorporated both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Four focused case studies illustrated that cognitive responses to weight fluctuations and competition were generally idiosyncratic, with variations within individuals across a range of cognitive functions and testing conditions. The exception to this finding was attentional processing speed, which appeared to be impaired in response to weight loss in most cases. Collectively, the results of the three studies indicate that the need for wasting, and the lack of safe and effective options to meet this need, continue to be pervasive and problematic facets of life for professional kockeys, in terms of their effects on psychological well-being and cognitive function.

Tom Wills was the most important Australian sportsman of the mid-nineteenth century, but it is only in the first decade of the twenty-first century that he has grown in profile as a figure of cultural significance. Although Tom Wills is best recalled as the most important figure in early Australian Rules football, it was cricket that dominated his life. He rose to prominence in cricket during his time at Rugby school in England during the 1850s. When he returned to Australia he became the captain of the Victorian cricket team. On 10 July 1858 he penned what has become one of the most famous documents in Australian sporting history: a letter calling for the formation of a ‘football’ club. Only three years later his father was murdered by aborigines in central Queensland in what is recorded as the highest number of European settlers killed by aborigines in a single assault. Remarkably, only five years after his father’s murder, Tom Wills coached an aboriginal cricket team from western Victoria. Tom Wills’ life ended early, as did so many lives of colonial sportsmen, shortened by the effects of alcohol. Alcohol abuse led directly to the suicide of Wills at the age of 44 years. This thesis is the first academic attempt to uncover and then critically review some of the important parameters that shaped his life.

There is conclusive evidence that regular physical activity produces both physical and psychological benefits. People engaged in sedentary work who avoid physical activity, or have physical or psychological obstacles to being physically active, forgo the substantial benefits that being physically active provides. In Australia, many middle-aged women (45 to 59 years) are especially at risk of ill-health due to their physically inactive lifestyles. In this dissertation, I report on a mixed-method research approach that incorporated the LIFE: Live It Up (LLIU) intervention. Adopting a multi-theoretical perspective I drew on strategies from Transtheoretical Model, Social Cognitive Theory, the Theory of Planned Behaviour, and Self-Determination Theory. In the first study, participants (71, sedentary, mid-life women) were assigned to either an adoption (3-hour workshop), maintenance (3-hour workshop plus extra maintenance session at 9 months) or control (usual activity) condition. Physical activity levels, psychological well-being, and moods were assessed (pre, post and at 4, 40 & 44 weeks) using the Scottish Physical Activity Questionnaire (SPAQ); the Medical Outcome Survey (MOS) Short Form, (SF36); and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale, (PANAS). Motivational messages (Treatment condition participants only) and reflective journals (all participants) tailored to conditions were delivered to participants across the intervention year. Quantitative analyses for the LLIU intervention study involved a series of Analyses of Variance (ANOVA). High attrition, however, across conditions resulted in only 27 participants remaining in the study at 52 weeks. No significant differences were from applying ANOVA to the SPAQ data for physical activity levels. Applying ANOVA to the vitality (SF-36 subscale) gain score data (SF-36) there was evidence of significant gains in vitality at 4 and 44 weeks for the treatment condition (TC) participants compared to the control condition. Feelings and emotions (mood) were measured with the PANAS (see appendix C). Applying ANOVA revealed positive affect was stable across the intervention for TC participants. Negative affect, however, was lowered at 52 weeks for TC participants. I interpreted all results cautiously, because of high attrition rates, particularly in the control condition, and a consequent loss in statistical power. Quantitative analyses for the LLIU intervention study involved a series of Analyses of Variance (ANOVA). High attrition, however, across conditions resulted in only 27 participants remaining in the study at 52 weeks. No significant differences were indicated from results of applying ANOVA to the SPAQ data for physical activity levels. Vitality, a construct assessing energy level and fatigue, was examined and applying ANOVA to the vitality (SF-36 subscale) gain score data (SF-36) showed evidence of significant gains in vitality at 4 and 44 weeks for the treatment condition (TC) participants compared to the control condition. Feelings and emotions were measured with the PANAS (see appendix C). Applying ANOVA revealed positive affect was stable across the intervention for TC participants. Negative affect, however, was lowered at 52 weeks for TC participants. I interpreted all results cautiously, because of high attrition rates, particularly in the control condition, and a consequent loss in statistical power. Qualitative analysis of the ejournals indicated that participation in the LLIU and elements of the ejournal were motivational for physical activity response. TC participants’ reported being encouraged through the workshops to focus on physical activity. Encouragement was associated with social aspects of the workshop, enjoyment, and the kind of information provided. In addition, TC participants reported that lack of time, family demands, and energy depletion were considerable obstacles to physical activity participation. In the second study, I conducted follow-up interviews with 11 of the intervention participants, between one and four months after their LLIU involvement ended. Using thematic content analysis I identified six themes expressed by the women within the treatment conditions. These were (i) commitment; (ii) change driving forces; (iii) positivity, “licence” to change, and guilt reduction; (iv) elements of choice, control, and capacity to follow through; (v) self-efficacy expectations; and (vi) social support issues. For instance, commitment involved participants in taking specific steps toward action and generated freedom from procrastination; change driving forces were internal and external with enjoyment greatly enhancing physical activity experiences; positivity led to a sense of licence to change, followed by guilt reduction. An additional three case studies drilled down into issues that mid-life women typically face when attempting physical activity change. Findings highlighted the frustration associated with wanting to change, being caught in an attempt-fail cycle, and being assigned to control condition; how change can happen (adoption condition) even when family values are highly prioritised and illustrated how the confidence gained through the LLIU developed sustainable efficacy for exercise (maintenance condition). Identification of “double benefits” such as engaging in physical activity while encouraging children to be active can be motivational for sustainable physical activity. Guilt metaphorically paralysed physical activity changes. Strategic thinking assisted with recycling through stages of change. Autonomous behaviour change in control participants who remained in the study raised key questions for future studies. In addition, my studies added to the evidence base that intervention research with sedentary participants requires additional strategies (e.g., overrecruitment, extra attention) to ensure sustained engagement. In conclusion, high attrition in the first study reduced the veracity of quantitative evidence for the effectiveness of multi-theory approaches for increasing physical activity. Findings reported for the second study have considerably expanded the evidence base concerning the debilitating effects of guilt and the usefulness of strategic thinking on motivation for physical activity. In addition, this study represents additional evidence for motivation for physical activity change being strengthened through workshops and reflective journals. Longitudinal research is especially difficult with sedentary cohorts especially in the context of recruiting and maintaining participant samples.

The types of kick that are performed in the football codes fall into two broad categories: punt kick and place kick. One type of punt kick is the major means of ball movement in Australian Rules football – the drop punt kick. Past studies have investigated the biomechanics of kicking. The pattern of segmental interaction during the kicking motion – known as the proximal to distal sequence (PDS) – is the most consistent finding that is reported in the biomechanics of kicking literature. In this sequence the proximal segment (thigh) initiates the forward swing of the kicking limb towards the ball and the forward rotation of the distal segment (shank) follows. PDS motions are also typified by a higher angular velocity of the distal segment (shank). Studies that have compared the difference between skilled and less skilled kickers in Australian Rules football have found that the difference in performance is the result of 1) the position of the shank at the end of the backswing is higher above horizontal (further in the clockwise direction) for the skilled than it is for the less skilled, 2) the maximum angular velocity of the thigh during the forward swing is greater for the skilled than it is for the less skilled and 3) the skilled kickers demonstrate greater mean maximum angular velocity of the shank at foot – ball contact. Apart from these findings there is inadequate information about the mechanical features of a skillful drop punt kick. The objective of this study was to quantify and compare the kinematics of skilled and less skilled kicking. A general profile of the drop punt kick and the reliability of the kinematic variables were also reported. The reliability study was conducted first. Six subjects were tested on two occasions to establish the reliability of the equipment and methods. Variables were deemed to be reliable if they demonstrated an ICC equal or greater than r = 0.80. Of the 95 variables that were analysed 42% had an ICC greater than r = 0.79 and 25% were classified as having questionable to moderate reliability because r = 0.50 – 0.79. Only reliable variables were used to compare the skilled and less skilled groups. Six elite skilled kickers and six elite less skilled kickers were used in the main study. All subjects used were AFL players at the time of the data collection. Two-dimensional video footage was taken of each kick using a high speed camera (200Hz). The camera was positioned so that its line of sight was perpendicular to the sagittal plane of motion. The video footage of each trial was processed through the Peak Motus motion analysis system. The start of the kicking motion was identified by the maximum cw angle of the thigh. The time of foot – ball contact was the end of the motion. There were two phases that were identified during this time; transition and forward swing. The duration of each was 50% of movement time. The results of the current study showed that the skilled kickers held the ankle in a more plantarflexed position than did the less skilled kickers (skilled 46.7 degrees, less skilled 39.21 degrees, r = 0.70, ES = – 1.06, p = .071) at the time of foot – ball contact. This result indicates that a common trait amongst skilled kickers is the presence of a taut instep at foot – ball contact. This is one trait of skilled kickers that is often referred to by skills coaches within the AFL. The maximum angular velocity of the shank (1402 degrees/second) was higher than that of the thigh (805 degrees/second). The mean knee extension angle at foot – ball contact was 50 degrees and the maximum knee extension angle occurred after foot – ball contact (150% movement time). There was no difference between groups in the magnitude of the angles or angular velocities (p &gt 0.2). There was a difference in the time between the maximum angular velocity of the thigh and the maximum angular velocity of the shank (p &lt 0.05). From this result we suggested that skilled kickers are distinguished from less skilled kickers based on the timing of the critical events not the magnitude of critical events.