Nos moluscos da classe Bivalvia, a margem do manto (ou palial) é geralmente organizada em três pregas e representa um ponto chave na compreensão da irradiação evolutiva do grupo e na conquista de novos nichos ecológicos. Na subclasse Pteriomorphia, agrupamento que reúne bivalves como ostras, vieiras e mexilhões, a margem do manto é amplamente diversa. Além disso, algumas linhas de evidência apontam para a associação entre estruturas paliais e diversificação de hábitos de vida, de modo que essa região anatômica representa uma importante fonte de dados para estudos de adaptação e correlação fenótipo-ambiente. A pesquisa desenvolvida investigou a diversidade morfológica da margem do manto em Pteriomorphia, por meio de abordagens comparativas e funcionais, a fim de inferir a evolução dessa região anatômica e testar hipóteses de homologia, convergência e correlação. A metodologia abrangeu: (1) inferência filogenética de Pteriomorphia com base em 187 espécies e até cinco genes; (2) morfologia comparada de 209 espécies utilizando-se espécimes depositados em coleções científicas, levantamento de caracteres chave do manto e emprego de métodos filogenéticos comparativos; e (3) anatomia detalhada da margem do manto em representantes de 12 espécies das principais famílias de Pteriomorphia, que foram coletados e analisados por meio de histologia, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e microscopia confocal. A análise filogenética de Pteriomorphia indica que o grupo é monofilético e organizado em quatro ordens contidas em dois clados principais (Arcida+Pectinida e Ostreida+Mytilida). A evolução da margem do manto abrange o surgimento de cinco tipos de órgãos fotorreceptores em diferentes linhagens epifaunais, com subsequente perda desses órgãos principalmente em grupos que se tornaram infaunais. Convergências evolutivas foram recorrentes na irradiação dos Pteriomorphia, como é o caso dos tentáculos paliais. Algumas dessas convergências estão correlacionadas a transições para o hábito de vida infaunal, como demonstrado pela hipertrofia da prega interna do manto em representantes de Arcida e Mytilida. A caracterização da inervação, musculatura, atividade secretora e ciliação da margem do manto contribuiu para a compreensão da anatomia funcional das pregas, ocelos, tentáculos, glândulas e demais estruturas associadas. Em suma, os resultados obtidos permitem compreender a evolução da margem do manto em Pteriomorphia associada a mudanças nos hábitos de vida, fornecendo evidências importantes para se explorar questões macroecológicas na irradiação dos bivalves e do bentos marinho como um todo / The mantle margin in bivalve mollusks typically comprises three folds, being considered a key element in the evolutionary radiation of the class and occupancy of novel ecological niches. In the subclass Pteriomorphia, which includes oysters, scallops, and mussels, the mantle margin is significantly diverse. In addition, several lines of evidence suggest the association between mantle structures and diversification of lifestyles, making the mantle margin a suitable anatomical region for studies focused on adaptations and phenotype-environment correlations. The present investigation evaluated the morphological diversity of the mantle margin in Pteriomorphia, by means of comparative and functional approaches, to infer the evolution of this anatomical region, and test hypotheses of homology, convergence and correlation. The methodology included: (1) phylogenetic inference of Pteriomorphia based on 187 taxa and up to five genes; (2) comparative morphology of 209 species based on observations of archived specimens, survey of key mantle traits and subsequent use of phylogenetic comparative methods; and (3) detailed anatomy of the mantle margin in representatives of 12 species from the most diverse pteriomorphian families, which were collected and analyzed by means of histology, scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. Phylogenetic analyses of Pteriomorphia corroborate its monophyly and indicate it is comprised of four orders divided in two main clades (Arcida+Pectinida and Ostreida+Mytilida). The inferred evolution of the mantle margin suggests the origin of five types of photoreceptor organs in independent epifaunal lineages, with subsequent loss of eyespots mostly in groups that became infaunal. Evolutionary convergences were pervasive in pteriomorphian radiation, as illustrated by multiple gains of mantle tentacles. Some convergences are correlated with transitions to infaunal lifestyles, as demonstrated by the hypertrophy of the inner mantle fold in lineages within Arcida and Mytilida. In addition, the detailed investigation of musculature, innervation, secretory activity and cilia of the mantle margin permitted inferring possible functions performed by mantle folds, eyespots, tentacles, glands and further associated structures. Altogether, the results shed light on the evolution of the mantle margin in Pteriomorphia in association with lifestyle shifts, therefore providing bases to explore macroecological questions in the evolutionary radiation of bivalves and the marine benthos as a whole

Several studies have seemingly demonstrated that artificial surveillance cues, such as images of watching eyes, increase prosocial behaviour. One of these studies investigated the effect of observation cues on moral judgment (Bourrat et al., 2011). Participants rated the moral acceptability of two misdeeds: falsifying information on a resume and keeping the cash found in a lost wallet. The moral acceptability ratings were lower for participants who were presented with an image of watching eyes than they were for participants exposed to a control image of flowers. The authors suggested that false cues of being watched triggered evolved cognitive mechanisms for recognizing when one is being observed. These mechanisms may have driven the cued participants to behave in a way that would have protected their reputations if they really had been watched; that is, by expressing disapproval of immoral behaviour. Inspired by Bourrat et al., I conducted an experiment investigating the effect of surveillance cues on self-rated positive traits, religiosity, and moral judgment. I found no evidence for an effect on any of these variables, including moral judgment. I conducted 3 more experiments, each increasingly similar in design to Bourrat et al., to determine the reason for the discrepancy in our results. None of my experiments replicated the surveillance cue effect. I suggest the most likely explanation is that Bourrat et al. obtained a false positive. My experimental results call into question the effect of surveillance cues on moral judgment; thus, it is appropriate to be skeptical of surveillance cues generally. I conducted a meta-analysis of studies investigating the effect of surveillance cues on generosity. The resulting funnel plot is consistent with publication bias in favour of significant results; it may also indicate that the surveillance cue effect on generosity, though perhaps a real phenomenon, is smaller than the literature implies. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)