Almost 50 years of thermophotovoltaic (TPV) research from various sectors has resulted in a variety of potential applications and TPV technology options. In this work the potential of commercial TPV applications is assessed with specific reference to the UK. The assessment considers competing technologies for electricity generation, namely solar photovoltaics, external and internal heat engine generators, electro¬chemical cells and direct heat-to-electricity conversion devices. Electricity generation by TPV conversion from waste heat of industrial high-temperature processes is identified as one of the most suitable TPV applications. This market is examined in more detail using three specific high-temperature processes from the iron and steel and the glass sectors. Results are extrapolated to the entire UK high-temperature industry and include potential energy and CO2 savings. This work gathers knowledge from TPV and other literature sources and evaluates the technological options for the heat source, the radiator and the PV cell for a TPV system. The optical control in terms of the angular, spatial and in particular spectral radiation distributions in cavities is identified as a specific factor for TPV conversion and critical for a system design. The impact of simultaneous radiation suppression above and below the PV cell bandgap on an ultimate efficiency level is examined. This research focuses on fused silica (SiO2) in TPV cavities and examines the aspects of radiation guidance by total internal reflection and spectral control using coupled radiative and conductive heat transfer. Finite volume modelling and experimental work have examined the radiator-glass-air-PV cell arrangement up to a SiO2 thickness of 20 cm. Both show that the efficiency improves for an increased SiO2 thickness. Finally, the novel concept of a TPV cavity consisting of a solid dielectric medium is assessed.

Rock-avalanches (RAs) are a large (typically > 106 m3) and extremely rapid (30 - >100 m/s) type of landslide. RAs pose a significant hazard as they can runout over long distances and generate secondary hazards such as tsunami and unstable, cross-valley dams. Previous research on the distribution of rock-avalanche deposits (RADs) on the South Island, New Zealand has suggested that there are fewer deposits than would be expected for a seismically active, high-mountain region. This is due to their removal from the sedimentary record (censoring) by fluvial erosion, glacial entrainment, vegetation cover, sub-aqueous occlusion and deposit misidentification. Censoring of deposits skews magnitude-frequency relationships of RA occurrence and hinders hazard planning. This research examines processes acting to fluvially censor RADs on the South Island. 268 known, and 47 possible RADs were identified to provide the first RAD inventory for the entire South Island. The temporal distribution of RADs indicates censoring of the record over the Holocene. >500 year intervals exist between RA events from 12,000 to 2,000 years ago; a more complete record is shown for the last 1,000 to 100 years with intervals of > 50 - < 150 years. The last 100 years shows phases of co-seismic RAD generation, a period of RAD quiescence and a recent increase in aseismic RAD occurrence. The spatial distribution of RADs suggests that the West Coast, Fiordland and Nelson could have experienced fluvial censoring of deposits. The sediment routing characteristics of catchments in these regions, where the majority of rivers have direct pathways from RADs to the ocean, suggest that fluvially reworked RAD material could be stored within alluvial flats and braidplains. Agglomerate grains (microscopic grains which are diagnostic of RAs) were used to identify fluvially reworked RAD material. Grains were detected in dam-breach flood terraces up to 1km downstream of known RADs. Contemporary river sediment samples showed no agglomerate presence, this suggests that 1) agglomerates break down under extended fluvial transport, 2) they are not supplied to river systems outside of flood events, 3) agglomerates become diluted by other river sediment or 4) they become buried in discrete sedimentary layers. In order to investigate the redistribution of coarse RAD material within South Island rivers, a micro-scale flume model was developed. Using ultra-violet sand as a novel analogue for a RAD, the redistribution of material through an idealised South Island catchment could be examined. The model showed that RAD material is deposited in discrete aggradational layers in dam proximal locations. Downstream, the sedimentary signal is rapidly diluted by ordinary river sediment flux. The research shows that the RAD record for the South Island is incomplete and that fluvial censoring is prevalent within the West Coast, Nelson and Fiordland. The agglomerate tracing method can be used to identify the presence of RADs in fluvial systems proximal to RADs but the signal is undetectable after ~1km from the deposit. Both field sampling and flume modelling show that localised flood derived aggradational layers, close to deposit locations, will archive reworked RAD material. These results have important implications for understanding the magnitude and frequency of RADs within New Zealand and other similar high-mountain, tectonically active regions of the globe.

Mixed sand and gravel beaches are an important means of sea defence. The majority of beaches in the south coast of the UK are of the mixed type and beach replenishment is generally needed in order to maintain the effectiveness of these beaches against storm wave attacks. Despite vigorous research efforts in recent years, coastal engineers still do not have a reliable method to estimate the sediment budget in their designs. In addition, there is also a lack of understanding of the impacts of beach maintenance activities, such as recycling and re-profiling, on the performance of the beach and on the economics in maintaining the beach system. This thesis is mainly focused on establishing the relationships between sediment transport of a mixed beach and the wave climate, and between the beach performance and beach maintenance activities. The thesis also aims to establish essential considerations coastal engineers need to give when planning beach maintenance operations.

In rivers and streams, fine sediment pollution is one of the most commonly attributed causes of ecological degradation. As fine sediment is also an important natural component of these ecosystems, and is variable both temporally and spatially, setting environmental targets and using conventional monitoring to determine where fine sediment is causing ecological degradation, is a complex challenge. An alternative approach is the use of biomonitoring tools, which utilise biota to gauge and track changes in the environment. This thesis examines the current state of sedimentbiomonitoring, considers the numerous theoretical and methodological decisions made during tool development, and applies a best practice approach to the development and testing of a sediment-specific tool. An existing biological index, which utilises knowledge of biological and ecological traits, is used as a basis for this development, following an evaluation of its performance over 835 minimally impacted temperate river and stream sites. The index is further developed using empirical data to assign indicator weights to individual taxa. The resulting index, the Empirically-weighted Proportion of Sediment-sensitive Invertebrates (E-PSI) index had moderate to strong correlations with fine sediment in independent test datasets of minimally (n = 84) (family-level: rs = -0.72; mixed-level: rs = -0.70; p < 0.01) and agriculturally impacted sites (n = 754) (family-level: rs = -0.68, p < 0.01). The E-PSI index has retained a biological basis, is easily integrated into regulatory agency protocols, and can be applied retrospectively to historic datasets. Despite the improved performance, a high amount of variation was observed between E-PSI and fine sediment cover. This is likely the result of the presence of multiple pressures, uncertainties concerning sediment-biota interactions, and the relatively low precision of sediment quantification techniques. Due to the prevalence of freshwater non-native invasive species, the effects of North American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) invasions on sediment- biomonitoring and fine sediment are also investigated. Additionally, given the subjective nature and lack of representativeness of many existing sediment quantification techniques, a novel, more objective, verifiable, and non-destructive method is developed and presented as “proof of concept”. This thesis contributes significantly to the literature concerning biomonitoring tool development and testing, and has resulted in a sediment-specific index that has a stronger correlation with its specific pressure, than the average biomonitoring tool used throughout Europe. The E-PSI index can be used alongside a suite of other biomonitoring tools, to identify the most likely causes of ecological degradation, and inform more targeted monitoring.

Groundwater from the (largely unconfined) Chalk aquifer constitutes a major water resource. The unsaturated zone plays a crucial role in the hydrological cycle, determining the timing and magnitude of recharge, and the transport and fate of nutrients. However, despite over 30 years of study our understanding of this system is incomplete. The objectives of this research were to investigate the aquifer characteristics of the Chalk and to clarify the physical processes controlling the movement of water in the unsaturated zone. Combining results from laboratory tests, geophysical logs, CCTV surveys and field instrumentation comprehensive insights into unsaturated zone processes are provided. Stratigraphical and geographical distributions of aquifer properties were investigated and marl horizons shown to provide the principal contrasts in hydraulic conductivity. Results from novel testing procedures allowed the Chalk soil moisture characteristic to be quantified and suggested surface storage and film flow to be significant unsaturated zone processes. CCTV and geophysical surveys provided supporting evidence of this and also highlighted the role of marl horizons in controlling saturated and unsaturated flow. Geophysical surveys also showed that the Chalk lithostratigraphy can be related to physical characteristics and fracturing which act to control recharge processes. Recharge was studied at two instrumented sites allowing matric potential to be monitored beyond depths previously attempted. At East IIsley, Berkshire, UK, recharge occurred throughout the year via the matrix, contrastingly, at North Heath Barn, Sussex, UK, the capacity for vertical drainage was low and evidence suggested that episodic lateral fracture flow would occur instead of vertical recharge. The instrumentation also showed that the water level in an unlined observation borehole can be influenced by processes in the unsaturated zone and may be an unreliable indicator of the water table. The findings of this study have important implications for the representation of recharge in groundwater models and the reliability of the parameterisation and predictions of these models. The presence of stratigraphically constrained recharge pathways suggests focused recharge to be a significant, although poorly understood, process controlling recharge to the Chalk.

Perennial frost mounds developed across northern Europe following retreat of the late Quaternary ice sheets (c. 23–19). Their relict forms comprise depressions with surrounding ramparts (periglacial ramparted depressions - PRDs). Although PRD surface geometry is well-documented, their origin is less well-understood. There is little agreement on: i) definitive identification of PRDs, ii) PRD formation processes, and iii) the relationship between different frost-mound types (i.e. pingo, palsa and lithalsa). For the first time, this research characterises the internal structure of a relict lithalsa in the Ardennes (Belgium-German border), at macro- (e.g. coring, logging) and micro-scales (thin sections) and contextualises this with observations on the hydrological, lithological and topographic setting. Micromorphology enables the study of sedimentary environments and processes of formation. This investigation identifies diagnostic suites of microstructures indicative of frost action, landform development and environmental setting. The results are then applied to suspected PRDs in Norfolk (Walton Common) and Wales (the Cledlyn Valley), for which a likely frost-mound origin is confirmed. This approach: i) identifies the internal structure of PRDs, ii) considers the potential for change in deformation with depth and lateral extent within the rampart, and iii) considers the differences and similarities in micro-textures and structures in a variety of grain sizes across the sites where PRDs occur. Key microstructures identified, indicative of cryogenic origins, include: i) a vertical to subvertical microfabric (e.g. frost-jacked grains), ii) platy-prismatic, sub-angular aggregates, iii) planar deformation (e.g. fragmented domains, frost-cracked grains), and iv) evidence of pore-water movement on thawing of ice and associated grain translocation (e.g. silt and clay cappings). Microstructures attributed to PRD development include: i) a sub-vertical microfabric of similarly inclined elongate grains, associated with tilted strata, ii) microstructures linked to mass-wasting during frost-mound growth or rampart formation (e.g. grain concentrations, grain coatings of silt and clay, curvilinear grain arrangements, skelsepic plasmic fabric), iii) planar structures (e.g. grain lineations, linear concentrations of grains and fragmented domains and fractured grains, that may reflect shear strain during rampart-formation processes), and vi) multiple domains, interpreted as re-homogenisation of sediment caused by frost-mound heave, and subsequent rampart-formation processes. Consequently, this research identifies and characterises PRDs, which: i. provides a better understanding of the genesis of PRDs, for the classification of different types of ice-cored hills, ii. informs palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, since ice-cored hills are diagnostic of former permafrost (frozen ground conditions), iii. informs civil engineering projects where sediments are disturbed by PRD development (e.g. heave and subsidence).

No description available.

The thesis explores the U.S. early warning system in the context of three separate but interlocking components: emergency management; special needs populations, in this case represented by the Deaf and hard of hearing community; and disaster education. Of importance is the need to bring further understanding to the relevancy of each and how the interrelationship among all three reflects a microcosm illustrative of the larger early warning paradigm and its challenges. Meeting those challenges requires implementation of innovative interventions and evidence-based approaches for adapting to the changing urban and rural demographics, climatological and technological environments. Severe weather and tornado hazard early warning is the embodiment of an integration of multiple systems requiring complex coordination of functions consisting of forecasting, detection, analysis, message development and dissemination, message reception, and action. This culminates in individual decision making for taking self-protection measures. The thesis methodological framework consisted of a mixed method approach. Data collection utilised a survey questionnaire instrument, individual interviews and focus groups. The research questioned if current warning processes within the U.S. tornado early warning system positively integrate with emergency management practices and effectively influence protective actions of the special needs population. Results indicate the emergency management system continues to be institutionally focused and operationally centric. Emergency managers recognise the need to become more of an integrated component between the warning mechanism and the communities they represent. Data indicate the Deaf and hard of hearing population remains underserved and generally ill-prepared for severe weather events. Disaster education programmes addressing their particular needs are scarce and current warning notification processes are often inadequate. Although tornado early warning detection and notification times are increasing, questions remain on how to more effectively encourage individuals to better heed warning messages.

This work investigates the development of an environmental consciousness and environmental activism in Britain, 1945-1975. The 1970s have been described as ‘the decade of the environment’ and was the period when the modern environmental movement emerged. In this thesis, the environmental movement is considered to be a broad network of individuals and pressure groups engaging in collective action with shared environmental beliefs. Much of the work on the movement has ignored or played down the importance of the post-war period on its development. This project challenges that, dealing less with the movement itself and more with the developments which led to its emergence: through analysing events like the great London smog of 1952 and the Torrey Canyon oil spill of 1967, as well as through television programmes, this thesis traces the post-war influences of the movement and the growth of environmental awareness. Environmental pressure groups form part of the movement and a number of them are studied here, such as the Newcastle-based group Save Our City from Environmental Mess and the London-based group Commitment, WWF, Friends of the Earth and the National Smoke Abatement Society. From analysing the resources of these groups and the political processes within which they appear (resource mobilisation theory and political process theory) a better understanding is made about their successes, failures and how they fed into a growing environmental awareness. Television programmes from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s – notably natural history programmes such as Look, Zoo Quest, Doctor Who and Doomwatch – also helped an environmental consciousness develop. In marrying together these different issues, this work provides an original contribution to knowledge, and assesses some of the influences which led to the environmental movement emerging in 1970s Britain.

There is a growing realisation that pre-disaster planning is an effective approach to building the resilience of nations to adverse events. There is mounting evidence that little has been done in terms of pre-disaster planning, not only in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) but also throughout much of the Islamic world. The reasons for this are twofold. Firstly, there are staggering economic developments, largely based on oil and gas revenues post World War 2, which substantially change the livelihoods, and therefore the vulnerability, of local populations. In the case of UAE, this was a move from a nomadic Bedouin pastoral culture to one of living in modern urban areas. Secondly, cities in the UAE have developed to a point where they are now global cities. City growth and development is being driven by the massive growth in immigration of foreign nationals and international businesses. In the UAE, there are seven foreign nationals for every UAE citizen. These developments have substantially changed the risk profile of the UAE. Many of the risk management strategies practiced when the UAE was mainly a nomadic society are no longer appropriate. Similarly, immigrants will bring with them different kinds risk management strategies, depending on their place of origin. Though the UAE is multi-cultural, Islam is an important part of the culture of the Emirates. The research investigates the role of Islam in disaster risk reduction. The research used a mixed methods approach for date collection. Secondary research developed the overview of the UAE vulnerability. Primary research had two parts. The first was data collection from groups of male and female community members and stakeholders in each Emirate to provide a comparative analysis of risk perception and response. The second comprised key stakeholder interviews and a focus group who had broad for disaster risk reduction. This research presents the first hazard history of UAE. A vulnerability viewpoint is used to evaluate the hazard history and findings are presented in the paradigm of natural hazards research. An evaluation of UAE’s institutionalisation of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) strategies in the context of its international obligations, e.g. the Hyogo Framework, is undertaken. Central to the argument about the difficulties of implementing DRR is the role of Islamic culture. The research offers the results of fieldwork that explore experience of disaster and emergency at personal, community and institutional level. It offers observations, from personal experience, of the difficulty of delivering interventions in traditional Arab architecture/land use patterns for emergency services as well as the challenges of the new, high rise, concrete cities. Most importantly, it looks to the governance issue of the Muslim faith, including the Quran itself, to see if there is any obligation or requirement to take community DRR seriously. It is this emphasis on understanding Muslim faith, the backbone of local lives, which underlie new directions for DRR in UAE. The research finds that there is too great a focus on institution building as opposed to improving community preparedness. It also finds there is strong support for a greater role of the Mosques in building community resilience. The research ends with an outline of the different vulnerabilities in each UAE Emirate but also with an emphasis on the importance of Muslim faith as the backbone of the total national community and the stepping-stone to a community based DRR.